How much vocabulary is needed to use English? Replication of van Zeeland & Schmitt (2012), Nation (2006) and Cobb (2007)

There is current research consensus that second language (L2) learners are able to adequately comprehend general English written texts if they know 98% of the words that occur in the materials. This important finding prompts an important question: How much English vocabulary do English as a second language (ESL) learners need to know to achieve this crucial level of known-word coverage? A landmark paper by Nation (2006) provides a rather daunting answer. His exploration of the 98% figure through a variety of spoken and written corpora showed that knowledge of around 8,000–9,000 word families is needed for reading and 6,000–7,000 for listening. But is this the definitive picture? A recent study by van Zeeland & Schmitt (2012) suggests that 95% coverage may be sufficient for listening comprehension, and that this can be reached with 2,000–3,000 word families, which is much more manageable. Getting these figures right for a variety of text modalities, genres and conditions of reading and listening is essential. Teachers and learners need to be able to set goals, and as Cobb's study of learning opportunities (2007) has shown, coverage percentages and their associated vocabulary knowledge requirements have important implications for the acquisition of new word knowledge through exposure to comprehensible L2 input. This article proposes approximate replications of Nation (2006), van Zeeland & Schmitt (2012), and Cobb (2007), in order to clarify these key coverage and size figures.

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Neural deficits in auditory phonological processing in Chinese children with English reading impairment

Bilingualism Language and Cognition ◽

10.1017/s1366728915000073 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 19 (2) ◽

pp. 331-346 ◽

Cited By ~ 4

Author(s):

XIANGZHI MENG ◽

HANLIN YOU ◽

MEIXIA SONG ◽

AMY S. DESROCHES ◽

ZHENGKE WANG ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Second Language ◽

Phonological Processing ◽

Inferior Frontal Gyrus ◽

Superior Temporal Gyrus ◽

Neural Mechanism ◽

Reading Impairment ◽

English Reading ◽

L2 Learners ◽

L1 And L2 ◽

Esl Learners

Auditory phonological processing skills are critical for successful reading development in English not only in native (L1) speakers but also in second language (L2) learners. However, the neural deficits of auditory phonological processing remain unknown in English-as-the-second-language (ESL) learners with reading difficulties. Here we investigated neural responses during spoken word rhyme judgments in typical and impaired ESL readers in China. The impaired readers showed comparable activation in the left superior temporal gyrus (LSTG), but reduced activation in the left inferior frontal gyrus (LIFG) and left fusiform and reduced connectivity between the LSTG and left fusiform when compared to typical readers. These findings suggest that impaired ESL readers have relative intact representations but impaired manipulation of phonology and reduced or absent automatic access to orthographic representations. This is consistent with previous findings in native English speakers and suggests a common neural mechanism underlying English impairment across the L1 and L2 learners.

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“Reduced Forms” Influence on Second Language Learners’ Listening Input-Intake Conversion

Scientific and Social Research ◽

10.36922/ssr.v3i5.1255 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 3 (5) ◽

pp. 194-199

Author(s):

Yueyang Zhao

Keyword(s):

Second Language ◽

Empirical Study ◽

Language Learners ◽

Listening Comprehension ◽

Second Language Learners ◽

Factors Influencing ◽

Comprehension Ability ◽

Input Hypothesis ◽

Esl Learners ◽

Reduced Forms

This article analyses the factors influencing the process of input-intake conversion and focuses on the effect of “reduced forms” on English as a Second Language (ESL) learners’ listening comprehension. The Input Hypothesis, the Noticing Hypothesis, the input-intake relationship, and the factors influencing the input-intake relationship are critically reviewed and analyzed. The empirical study of Brown and Hilferty [1] is reviewed and discussed to show reduced forms’ influence on ESL learners’ listening comprehension. The results prove that integrating reduced forms into ESL lessons is both necessary and meaningful for improving students’ listening comprehension ability.

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Arabic Learners’ Production of Regular English Past Tense Verbs

International Journal of Linguistics ◽

10.5296/ijl.v13i6.19205 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 13 (6) ◽

pp. 76

Author(s):

Baraa A. Rajab

Keyword(s):

Second Language ◽

Past Tense ◽

Inflectional Morphology ◽

Native Languages ◽

L1 Transfer ◽

Obligatory Contour Principle ◽

Arabic Speakers ◽

L2 Learners ◽

Esl Learners ◽

Abstract Feature

Previous studies show that second language (L2) learners of English sometimes produce the verb with proper past tense inflectional morphology as in help[t] and sometimes repair the cluster, as in helpø or hel[pəd]. Complicating matters, these studies focused on L2 learners whose native languages disallowed codas or had very restricted codas. Thus, it is difficult to tell whether any problems in producing past tense morphology are due to first language L1-transferred coda restrictions, or an inability to acquire the abstract feature of past tense. To rule out native language syllable structure interference, this paper aims to examine the production of the English regular past tense verb by Arabic L1 ESL learners, a language that allows complex codas. The paper also examines the role of a phonological universal, the Obligatory Contour Principle (OCP) that disallows two adjacent similar sounds, and its effect on learners’ production. The data come from twenty-two English as a Second Language (ESL) students at three levels of proficiency. The task was a sentence list eliciting target clusters in past tense contexts that violate manner in OCP: fricative + stop ([st], [ft]) vs. stop + stop ([pt], [kt]). Results show that L1 Arabic speakers have difficulty in producing past tense morphology, even though their L1 allows complex codas. Fricative + stop clusters are repaired (epenthesis/deletion) at a lower rate (low =25.71%, intermediate = 6.6%, high=11.11%) than stop + stop clusters (low=57.14%, intermediate = 40.27%, high=22.91%). The higher rate of repair is clear in stops + stop clusters suggesting that learners abide by phonological universals and prefer not to violate OCP. Finally, proficiency level has an effect on target-like production, as higher-proficiency learners produce past-tense morphology at a higher rate than lower-proficiency learners. Together, these results indicate that L1 transfer is not the only source of difficulty in the production of past tense morphology, and that the abstract feature of tense is problematic, particularly at the early stages of ESL development.

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One size fits all? In search of the desirable caption display for second language learners with different caption reliance in listening comprehension

Language Teaching Research ◽

10.1177/1362168819856451 ◽

2019 ◽

pp. 136216881985645 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Ping-Jung Lee ◽

Yeu-Ting Liu ◽

Wen-Ta Tseng

Keyword(s):

Second Language ◽

Foreign Language ◽

Language Learners ◽

Listening Comprehension ◽

Second Language Learners ◽

Transient Nature ◽

Significant Difference ◽

L2 Learners ◽

Comprehension Aids ◽

The Impact

Existing research has established captions as effective second-language (L2) or foreign language (FL) listening comprehension aids. However, due to the transient nature of captions, not all learners are capable of attending to captions in all cases. Previous work posited that to leverage the impact of technologies in learning and instruction, a better understanding of the interplay between technology and cognition is warranted. In this vein, the current study set out to investigate the effects of four different caption modes (full vs. partial vs. real-time vs. control) on the listening comprehension of 95 high-intermediate Taiwanese learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) with different caption reliance (i.e. more-caption-reliant vs. less-caption-reliant). The results showed no significant difference between the participants’ listening comprehension outcomes under the four caption conditions when their caption reliance was not considered. However, when this was considered, the differences among the four caption conditions became salient, which was suggestive of the selective effect of captions on L2 learners with different caption reliance. While less-caption-reliant L2 learners had the best listening comprehension outcome under the partial-caption condition and the worst under the full-caption condition, more-caption-reliant L2 learners exhibited the best performance under the full-caption condition yet the worst under the partial-caption condition. The finding underscores the importance of considering L2 learners’ processing profiles when utilizing captioned videos as multimodal instructional/learning materials and speaks to the need of utilizing differentiated video materials for optimal listening outcomes.

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The benefits of abstract word training on productive vocabulary knowledge among second language learners

Applied Psycholinguistics ◽

10.1017/s0142716419000262 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 40 (6) ◽

pp. 1331-1362

Author(s):

Chaleece W. Sandberg ◽

Erin Carpenter ◽

Katherine Kerschen ◽

Daniela Paolieri ◽

Carrie N. Jackson

Keyword(s):

Second Language ◽

Second Language Learners ◽

Abstract Word ◽

Vocabulary Knowledge ◽

Lexical Retrieval ◽

Generation Task ◽

Training Paradigm ◽

L2 Learners ◽

Abstract Words ◽

Concrete Words

AbstractThis study investigates the effect of an abstract word training paradigm initially developed to treat lexical retrieval deficits in patients with aphasia on second language (L2) vocabulary acquisition. Three English–Spanish L2 learners (Experiment 1) and 10 Spanish–English L2 learners (Experiment 3) were trained on 15 abstract words within a context-category (e.g., restaurant) using a five-step training paradigm based on semantic feature analysis. In addition, 7 English–Spanish L2 learners were trained on either abstract or concrete words within a context-category (Experiment 2). Across all experiments, the majority of participants trained on abstract words showed improved production of the trained abstract words, as measured by a word generation task, as well as improvement on untrained concrete words within the same context-category (i.e., generalization). Participants trained on concrete words (Experiment 2) exhibited much smaller word production gains and no generalization to abstract words. These results parallel previous findings from aphasia research and suggest that this training paradigm can successfully be extended to L2 learning contexts, where it has the potential to be a useful tool in vocabulary instruction. We discuss the findings in terms of models of spreading activation and the underlying conceptual representations of abstract and concrete words in the L2 lexicon.

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Exploring the impact of individual differences in aural vocabulary knowledge, written vocabulary knowledge and working memory capacity on explaining L2 learners’ listening comprehension

Applied Linguistics Review ◽

10.1515/applirev-2018-0106 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 11 (3) ◽

pp. 423-447 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Ahmed Masrai

Keyword(s):

Working Memory ◽

Second Language ◽

Individual Differences ◽

Listening Comprehension ◽

Working Memory Capacity ◽

Explanatory Power ◽

Memory Capacity ◽

Vocabulary Knowledge ◽

Pedagogical Practice ◽

The Impact

AbstractListening comprehension constitutes a considerable challenge for second language learners, but little is known about the relative contribution of individual differences in distinct factors to listening comprehension. Since research in this area is relatively limited in comparison to that focusing on the relationship between reading comprehension and factors such as vocabulary knowledge and working memory, there is a need for studies that seek to fill the gap in our knowledge about the specific contribution of aural vocabulary knowledge, written vocabulary knowledge and working memory capacity to explaining listening comprehension. Among 130 non-native speakers of English, the present study examines what proportion of the variance in listening comprehension is explained by aural vocabulary knowledge, written vocabulary knowledge, and working memory capacity. The results show that aural vocabulary knowledge is the strongest predictor of listening comprehension, followed by working memory capacity, while written vocabulary knowledge contributes only marginally. The study discusses implications for the explanatory power of aural vocabulary knowledge and working memory to listening comprehension and pedagogical practice in second language classrooms.

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What vocabulary size tells us about pronunciation skills: Issues in assessing L2 learners

Journal of French Language Studies ◽

10.1017/s0959269520000010 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 30 (2) ◽

pp. 141-160

Author(s):

Paolo Mairano ◽

Fabian Santiago

Keyword(s):

Second Language ◽

Research Methods ◽

Language Proficiency ◽

Vocabulary Knowledge ◽

Listening Skills ◽

Vocabulary Size ◽

L2 Learners ◽

The Impact ◽

Speaking Skills

AbstractMeasures of second language (L2) learners’ vocabulary size have been shown to correlate with language proficiency in reading, writing and listening skills, and vocabulary tests are sometimes used for placement purposes. However, the relation between learners’ vocabulary knowledge and their speaking skills has been less thoroughly investigated, and even less so in terms of pronunciation. In this article, we compare vocabulary and pronunciation measures for 25 Italian instructed learners of L2 French. We measure their receptive (Dialang score) and productive (vocd-D, MTLD) vocabulary size, and calculate the following pronunciation indices: acoustic distance and overlap of realizations for selected L2 French vowel pairs, ratings of nasality for ratings of foreign-accentedness, fluency metrics. We find that vocabulary measures show low to medium correlations with fluency metrics and ratings of foreign-accentedness, but not with vowel metrics. We then turn our attention to the impact of research methods on the study of vocabulary and pronunciation. More specifically, we discuss the possibility that these results are due to pitfalls in vocabulary and pronunciation indices, such as the failure of Dialang to take into account the effect of L1-L2 cognates, and the lack of measures for evaluating consonants, intonation and perception skills.

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The role of breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge in second language listening comprehension

Journal of Second Language Studies ◽

10.1075/jsls.19012.vaf ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 3 (1) ◽

pp. 55-81

Author(s):

Payman Vafaee

Keyword(s):

Second Language ◽

English Learners ◽

Structural Equation ◽

Listening Comprehension ◽

Standardized Test ◽

Vocabulary Knowledge ◽

Equation Modeling ◽

Measured Variable ◽

Relative Contribution ◽

Wide Range

Abstract The purpose of the current study was to examine the extent by which second language breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge (BVK and DVK, respectively) were predictors of successful listening comprehension. To this end, along with a standardized test of listening comprehension ability, aural measures of both BVK and DVK were administered to 262 English learners within a wide range of proficiency level. The data were subjected to structural equation modeling, and the results showed that BVK and DVK were not measured in a psychometrically distinct way in the current study. This did not allow any conclusions about the relative contribution of BVK and DVK to listening ability at the construct level. However, at the measured-variable level, the findings showed that the DVK test scores were better predictors of success in listening comprehension than the ones from the BVK test.

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Emergent vocabulary in second language socialization among learners

Language and Dialogue ◽

10.1075/ld.5.2.05esg ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 5 (2) ◽

pp. 283-299

Author(s):

Roseley Santos Esguerra ◽

Phalangchok Wanphet

Keyword(s):

Second Language ◽

Language Socialization ◽

English Proficiency ◽

Communication Strategies ◽

Vocabulary Knowledge ◽

Work Activities ◽

Communication Problems ◽

Language Classroom ◽

L2 Learners ◽

Pair Work

In general, second language (L2) learners have limited vocabulary knowledge. In addition, they often have difficulty identifying, recognizing, or recalling the vocabulary necessary for a certain situation. This limitation and those three factors result in problematic talk where repair, improvement, and practice are merited. The purpose of the present study, following a conversation analytic (CA) perspective, explores how vocabulary-related communication problems are resolved when a low proficient learner (LPL) and a high proficient learner (HPL) communicate during their pair-work activities. In particular, this research studies the sequence of turns and repair in the talk. The study revealed that (1) the repair is mostly initiated by the LPL, (2) the HPL can be a crucial language source in the classroom, and (3) problems are caused by insufficient vocabulary knowledge and not comprehending a correctly-pronounced word. This study reveals the importance of students’ pair-work (especially pair-work activities when the students have disparate English proficiency) in the language classroom and suggests communication strategies.

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Deliberate Learning Of Second Language (L2) Vocabulary: Research-Based Guidelines

KnE Social Sciences ◽

10.18502/kss.v1i3.741 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 1 (3) ◽

pp. 210

Author(s):

Syarifuddin .

Keyword(s):

Second Language ◽

Vocabulary Learning ◽

Word List ◽

Word Knowledge ◽

Vocabulary Size ◽

Spoken Discourse ◽

Word Families ◽

Wide Range ◽

Deliberate Learning ◽

L2 Vocabulary

This article is devoted to overviewing several current studies on L2 vocabulary learning, especially those aimed at investigating and exploring the ways in which deliberate vocabulary learning would be best facilitated, and thus would increase learning. It is argued that knowledge of vocabulary is fundamental in all language use, and becomes an essential part to master second language. A large amount of vocabulary is required to use English both receptively and productively: 8000 – 9000 word families needed in order to adequately comprehend a wide range of written discourse (Nation, 2006), and 2000 – 3000 word families required to get sufficient comprehension of spoken discourse (van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2012). Knowing a lexical item entails several aspects of word knowledge i.e., form, meaning, and use, each of which is further comprised of several sub-aspects of word knowledge. In addition, vocabulary learning is incremental in nature. Taken all these into account, there should be a component of deliberate vocabulary learning in language teaching, regardless of the preferred teaching methods being applied. Most importantly, deliberate learning of vocabulary should be intensively focused on lexical items which fall into both the new GSL word list (Brezina & Gablasova, 2015) and the new AWL word list (Coxhead, 2000). Finally, reviewing current studies on L2 vocabulary learning results in several research-based guidelines for deliberate or intentional vocabulary learning which are discussed throughout the rest of this article. Keywords: vocabulary learning, vocabulary size, word knowledge, high-frequency words, academic words, deliberately-learning-vocabulary guidelines

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