scholarly journals Operant and classical learning principles underlying mind–body interaction in pain modulation: a pilot fMRI study

2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
In-Seon Lee ◽  
Won-Mo Jung ◽  
Ye-Seul Lee ◽  
Christian Wallraven ◽  
Younbyoung Chae
Keyword(s):  
Classical Conditioning ◽  
Operant Conditioning ◽  
Instrumental Learning ◽  
Test Session ◽  
Pain Modulation ◽  
Learning Mechanisms ◽  
Temporoparietal Junction ◽  
Passive Behavior ◽  
Pain Ratings ◽  
Learning Principles

AbstractThe operant conditioning has been less studied than the classical conditioning as a mechanism of placebo-like effect, and two distinct learning mechanisms have never been compared to each other in terms of their neural activities. Twenty-one participants completed cue-learning based pain rating tasks while their brain responses were measured using functional magnetic resonance imaging. After choosing (instrumental) or viewing (classical) one of three predictive cues (low- and high-pain cues with different level of certainty), they received painful stimuli according to the selected cues. Participants completed the same task during the test session, except that they received only a high pain stimulus regardless of the selected cues to identify the effects of two learning paradigms. While receiving a high pain stimulation, low-pain cue significantly reduced pain ratings compared to high-pain cue, and the overall ratings were significantly lower under operant than under classical conditioning. Operant behavior activated the temporoparietal junction significantly more than the passive behavior did, and neural activity in the primary somatosensory cortex was significantly reduced during pain in instrumental as compared with classical conditioning trials. The results suggest that pain modulation can be induced by classical and operant conditioning, and mechanisms of attention and context change are involved in instrumental learning.

scholarly journals Complex dynamics of choice during operant extinction and a “simple” associative learning account

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
José R. Donoso ◽  
Julian Packheiser ◽  
Roland Pusch ◽  
Zhiyin Lederer ◽  
Thomas Walther ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Computational Model ◽  
Associative Learning ◽  
Operant Conditioning ◽  
Complex Dynamics ◽  
Rule Learning ◽  
Learning Curves ◽  
Learning Mechanisms ◽  
Learning Session ◽  
Extinction Learning ◽  
Operant Extinction

AbstractExtinction learning, the process of ceasing an acquired behavior in response to altered reinforcement contingencies, is essential for survival in a changing environment. So far, research has mostly neglected the learning dynamics and variability of behavior during extinction learning and instead focused on a few response types that were studied by population averages. Here, we take a different approach by analyzing the trial-by-trial dynamics of operant extinction learning in both pigeons and a computational model. The task involved discriminant operant conditioning in context A, extinction in context B, and a return to context A to test the context-dependent return of the conditioned response (ABA renewal). By studying single learning curves across animals under repeated sessions of this paradigm, we uncovered a rich variability of behavior during extinction learning: (1) Pigeons prefer the unrewarded alternative choice in one-third of the sessions, predominantly during the very first extinction session an animal encountered. (2) In later sessions, abrupt transitions of behavior at the onset of context B emerge, and (3) the renewal effect decays as sessions progress. While these results could be interpreted in terms of rule learning mechanisms, we show that they can be parsimoniously accounted for by a computational model based only on associative learning between stimuli and actions. Our work thus demonstrates the critical importance of studying the trial-by-trial dynamics of learning in individual sessions, and the unexpected power of “simple” associative learning processes.Significance StatementOperant conditioning is essential for the discovery of purposeful actions, but once a stimulus-response association is acquired, the ability to extinguish it in response to altered reward contingencies is equally important. These processes also play a fundamental role in the development and treatment of pathological behaviors such as drug addiction, overeating and gambling. Here we show that extinction learning is not limited to the cessation of a previously reinforced response, but also drives the emergence of complex and variable choices that change from learning session to learning session. At first sight, these behavioral changes appear to reflect abstract rule learning, but we show in a computational model that they can emerge from “simple” associative learning.

A Classical Conditioning Procedure for the Hearing Assessment of Multiply Handicapped Persons

1989 ◽  
Vol 54 (1) ◽  
pp. 88-93 ◽  
Author(s):  
Giulio E. Lancioni ◽  
Frans Coninx ◽  
Paul M. Smeets
Keyword(s):  
Classical Conditioning ◽  
Unconditioned Stimulus ◽  
Children And Adolescents ◽  
Operant Conditioning ◽  
Conditioning Procedure ◽  
Handicapped Children ◽  
Visual Reinforcement ◽  
Classical Procedure ◽  
Hearing Assessment ◽  
Classical Conditioning Procedure

The present study evaluated the viability of a classical conditioning procedure with an air puff as unconditioned stimulus for the hearing assessment of multiply handicapped children and adolescents. All subjects were also exposed to operant conditioning, which consisted of a modified visual reinforcement audiometry (VRA) procedure or involved edible reinforcement contingent on a reaching response (for blind subjects). The findings indicate that the classical conditioning procedure was successful with 21 of the 23 subjects, whereas operant conditioning succeeded with 15 of the subjects. Thresholds obtained with classical conditioning were mostly equal to or within 10 dB of those obtained with operant conditioning and also matched previously available hearing estimates. These findings seem to suggest that the classical procedure can be a useful behavioral alternative for audiological assessment.

scholarly journals Catastrophizing Interferes with Cognitive Modulation of Pain in Women with Fibromyalgia

Pain Medicine ◽  
2018 ◽  
Vol 19 (12) ◽  
pp. 2408-2422 ◽  
Author(s):  
Laura D Ellingson ◽  
Aaron J Stegner ◽  
Isaac J Schwabacher ◽  
Jacob B Lindheimer ◽  
Dane B Cook
Keyword(s):  
Central Nervous System ◽  
Chronic Pain ◽  
Nervous System ◽  
Pain Catastrophizing ◽  
Pain Modulation ◽  
Critical Function ◽  
Sensory Stimuli ◽  
Brain Responses ◽  
Increased Risk ◽  
Pain Ratings

Abstract Background Pain modulation is a critical function of the nociceptive system that includes the ability to engage descending pain control systems to maintain a functional balance between facilitation and inhibition of incoming sensory stimuli. Dysfunctional pain modulation is associated with increased risk for chronic pain and is characteristic of fibromyalgia (FM). Catastrophizing is also common in FM. However, its influence on pain modulation is poorly understood. Objective To determine the role of catastrophizing on central nervous system processing during pain modulation in FM via examining brain responses and pain sensitivity during an attention-distraction paradigm. Methods Twenty FM patients and 18 healthy controls (CO) underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging while receiving pain stimuli, administered alone and during distracting cognitive tasks. Pain ratings were assessed after each stimulus. Catastrophizing was assessed with the Pain Catastrophizing Scale (PCS). Results The ability to modulate pain during distraction varied among FM patients and was associated with catastrophizing. This was demonstrated by significant positive relationships between PCS scores and pain ratings (P < 0.05) and brain responses in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (P < 0.01). Relationships between catastrophizing and pain modulation did not differ between FM and CO (P > 0.05). Conclusions FM patients with higher levels of catastrophizing were less able to distract themselves from pain, indicative of catastrophizing-related impairments in pain modulation. These results suggest that the tendency to catastrophize interacts with attention-resource allocation and may represent a mechanism of chronic pain exacerbation and/or maintenance. Reducing catastrophizing may improve FM symptoms via improving central nervous system regulation of pain.

scholarly journals Getting a Grip on Cognitive Flexibility

2018 ◽  
Vol 27 (6) ◽  
pp. 470-476 ◽  
Author(s):  
Senne Braem ◽  
Tobias Egner
Keyword(s):  
Associative Learning ◽  
Cognitive Flexibility ◽  
Contextual Cues ◽  
Learning Mechanisms ◽  
Bottom Up ◽  
Low Level ◽  
Stimulus Response ◽  
Control Functions ◽  
New Directions ◽  
Learning Principles

Cognitive flexibility refers to the ability to quickly reconfigure our mind, as when we switch between different tasks. This review highlights recent evidence showing that cognitive flexibility can be conditioned by simple incentives typically known to drive lower-level learning, such as stimulus–response associations. Cognitive flexibility can also become associated with, and triggered by, bottom-up contextual cues in our environment, including subliminal cues. Therefore, we suggest that the control functions that mediate cognitive flexibility are grounded in, and guided by, basic associative-learning mechanisms and abide by the same learning principles as more low-level forms of behavior. Such a learning perspective on cognitive flexibility offers new directions and important implications for further research, theory, and applications.

scholarly journals How to Improve Behavioral Parent and Teacher Training for Children with ADHD: Integrating Empirical Research on Learning and Motivation into Treatment

2020 ◽  
Vol 23 (4) ◽  
pp. 577-604
Author(s):  
Saskia van der Oord ◽  
Gail Tripp
Keyword(s):  
Teacher Training ◽  
Parenting Practices ◽  
Instrumental Learning ◽  
Emotional Reactions ◽  
Children With Adhd ◽  
Remediation Strategies ◽  
Core Elements ◽  
Behavioral Treatments ◽  
Behavioral Predictions ◽  
Learning Principles

Abstract Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder [ADHD] is one of the most common psychiatric disorders of childhood with poor prognosis if not treated effectively. Recommended psychosocial evidence-based treatment for preschool and school-aged children is behavioral parent and teacher training [BPT]. The core elements of BPT are instrumental learning principles, i.e., reinforcement of adaptive and the ignoring or punishment of non-adaptive behaviors together with stimulus control techniques. BPT is moderately effective in reducing oppositional behavior and improving parenting practices; however, it does not reduce blinded ratings of ADHD symptoms. Also after training effects dissipate. This practitioner review proposes steps that can be taken to improve BPT outcomes for ADHD, based on purported causal processes underlying ADHD. The focus is on altered motivational processes (reward and punishment sensitivity), as they closely link to the instrumental processes used in BPT. Following a critical analysis of current behavioral treatments for ADHD, we selectively review motivational reinforcement-based theories of ADHD, including the empirical evidence for the behavioral predictions arising from these theories. This includes consideration of children’s emotional reactions to expected and unexpected outcomes. Next we translate this evidence into potential ADHD-specific adjustments designed to enhance the immediate and long-term effectiveness of BPT programs in addressing the needs of children with ADHD. This includes the use of remediation strategies for proposed deficits in learning not commonly used in BPT programs and cautions regarding the use of punishment. Finally, we address how these recommendations can be effectively transferred to clinical practice.

How memorable experiences influence brand preference

2017 ◽  
Vol 20 (4) ◽  
pp. 394-415 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jens Stach
Keyword(s):  
Classical Conditioning ◽  
Operant Conditioning ◽  
Real Life ◽  
Brand Preference ◽  
Mere Exposure Effect ◽  
Dominant Form ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Exposure Effect ◽  
Conditioning Theory ◽  
User Groups

Purpose This paper aims to illuminate mechanisms through which memorable experiences with brands create lasting preferences. It is based on the proposition that intense positive (negative) affective consumption in the consumer’s youth creates powerful imprints, which influence brand preference (distaste) throughout life. Design/methodology/approach Autobiographical memories with Nutella are retrieved from three different user groups, i.e. heavy-, light- and non-users. The retrieved memory narratives are analysed using conditioning theory, i.e. operant, classical or no conditioning are identified and compared across groups. Findings The research’s central proposition is affirmed, yet the dominant form of conditioning mechanism differs per group. Operant conditioning outperforms classical conditioning in creating strong and lasting preferences. Heavy- and non-users predominantly exhibit in-tensely positive and negative operant conditioning, respectively. Light-users on the other hand recall less affectively intense consumption experiences, mainly featuring classical conditioning. The light-users’ recollections suggest a mere exposure effect to be more appropriate in describing the preference formation in this user group. Research limitations/implications Users not having experienced affectively intense consumption, i.e. light-users, are likely to be influenced in their preference over time through other factors, which this paper does not focus on. Practical implications Memory elicitation and exploration provides valuable insights to shape both promotional as well as advertising strategies. Originality/value The study extends existing theory on conditioning in marketing by first using a novel qualitative approach to analyse conditioning procedures in real-life settings, and second, it highlights operant conditioning’s superior ability in creating lasting preferences.

Relationships of Awareness to Verbal Learning Efficiency and Meaning Change

1966 ◽  
Vol 19 (3) ◽  
pp. 875-883 ◽  
Author(s):  
A. William Miller
Keyword(s):  
Classical Conditioning ◽  
Factorial Design ◽  
Operant Conditioning ◽  
Verbal Learning ◽  
The Other ◽  
Response Frequency ◽  
Learning Efficiency ◽  
Meaning Change ◽  
Relationship Of ◽  
Verbal Operant

The general relationship of awareness to learning efficiency was investigated in a 2 × 2 factorial design with 20 Ss in each of four groups. Classical conditioning of meaning and verbal operant conditioning procedures were studied under two sets of instructions: one stated vague experimental purposes and the other, exact purposes. Ss' awareness of experimental procedures and purposes was measured Results indicated that with both classical and operant conditioning change in meaning occurred without awareness by Ss. A classical conditioning explanation of change in meaning was supported, but an operant conditioning explanation of change in terms of response frequency was not strengthened.

Self-Enacting Response Sequences and Reinforcement: Conjecture

1966 ◽  
Vol 19 (1) ◽  
pp. 19-31 ◽  
Author(s):  
Thornton B. Roby
Keyword(s):  
Classical Conditioning ◽  
Initial Segment ◽  
Instrumental Learning ◽  
Learning Theories ◽  
Large Measure ◽  
Behavior Theory ◽  
Learned Behavior ◽  
Overt Behavior

In large measure the difficulties of the principal learning theories may stem from the use of discrete, overt, responses as the units of learned behavior. Internally chained sequences of implicit responses are suggested as alternative units. The latter are assumed to result in overt behavior by a process of neurological summation. It is then proposed that the principle governing reinforcement of such sequences is that the elicitation of any initial segment of a successful sequence increases the probability that remaining elements of the sequence will be elicited. The principle is applied to habituation, classical conditioning, instrumental learning, and avoidance. Finally, points of similarity and contrast with the major theories of learning are discussed, and several general criteria for a behavior theory are listed which seem to favor a formulation of the kind proposed.

scholarly journals Reliability of Subjective Pain Ratings and Nociceptive Flexion Reflex Responses as Measures of Conditioned Pain Modulation

2014 ◽  
Vol 19 (2) ◽  
pp. 93-96 ◽  
Author(s):  
Carlo Jurth ◽  
Benno Rehberg ◽  
Falk von Dincklage
Keyword(s):  
Intraclass Correlation ◽  
Pain Modulation ◽  
Hot Water ◽  
Conditioned Pain Modulation ◽  
Good Test ◽  
Retest Reliability ◽  
Reflex Responses ◽  
Pain Ratings ◽  
Subjective Pain ◽  
Test Retest Reliability

BACKGROUND: The endogenous modulation of pain can be assessed through conditioned pain modulation (CPM), which can be quantified using subjective pain ratings or nociceptive flexion reflexes. However, to date, the test-retest reliability has only been investigated for subjective pain ratings.OBJECTIVE: To compare the test-retest reliability of CPM-induced changes, measured using subjective pain ratings and nociceptive flexion reflexes, to provide a reliable scoring parameter for future studies.METHOD: A total of 40 healthy volunteers each received painful electrical stimuli to the sural nerve to elicit nociceptive flexion reflexes. Reflex sizes and subjective pain ratings were recorded before and during the immersion of the contralateral hand in hot water to induce CPM as well as innocuous water as control. Measurements were repeated in a retest 28 days later.RESULTS: Intraclass correlation coefficients showed good test-retest reliabilities of CPM during the hot water stimulus for both scoring parameters. Subjective pain ratings also correlated between test and retest during the control stimulus.CONCLUSIONS: Subjective pain ratings and nociceptive flexion reflexes show comparable test-retest reliabilities, but they reflect different components of CPM. While subjective pain ratings appear to incorporate cognitive influences to a larger degree, reflex responses appear to reflect spinal nociception more purely.

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