What drives fruit growth?

2015 ◽  
Vol 42 (9) ◽  
pp. 817 ◽  
Author(s):  
Robert C. O. Okello ◽  
Ep Heuvelink ◽  
Pieter H. B. de Visser ◽  
Paul C. Struik ◽  
Leo F. M. Marcelis
Keyword(s):  
Cell Division ◽  
Nuclear Dna ◽  
Fruit Size ◽  
Nuclear Dna Content ◽  
Growth Dynamics ◽  
Cell Number ◽  
Fruit Growth ◽  
Cell Level ◽  
Positive Correlation ◽  
Positive Correlations

Cell division, endoreduplication (an increase in nuclear DNA content without cell division) and cell expansion are important processes for growth. It is debatable whether organ growth is driven by all three cellular processes. Alternatively, all could be part of a dominant extracellular growth regulatory mechanism. Cell level processes have been studied extensively and a positive correlation between cell number and fruit size is commonly reported, although few positive correlations between cell size or ploidy level and fruit size have been found. Here, we discuss cell-level growth dynamics in fruits and ask what drives fruit growth and during which development stages. We argue that (1) the widely accepted positive correlation between cell number and fruit size does not imply a causal relationship; (2) fruit growth is regulated by both cell autonomous and noncell autonomous mechanisms as well as a global coordinator, the target of rapamycin; and (3) increases in fruit size follow the neocellular theory of growth.

scholarly journals Rootstock Effects on Growth, Cell Number, and Cell Size of `Gala' Apples

2004 ◽  
Vol 129 (1) ◽  
pp. 37-41 ◽  
Author(s):  
Yahya K. Al-Hinai ◽  
Teryl R. Roper
Keyword(s):  
Cell Division ◽  
Cell Size ◽  
Agricultural Research ◽  
Fruit Size ◽  
Cell Number ◽  
Fruit Growth ◽  
Research Station ◽  
Full Bloom ◽  
Final Size ◽  
Load Effects

The effects of rootstock on growth of fruit cell number and size of `Gala' apple trees (Malus domestica Borkh) were investigated over three consecutive seasons (2000-02) growing on Malling 26 (M.26), Ottawa-3, Pajam-1, and Vineland (V)-605 rootstocks at the Peninsular Agricultural Research Station near Sturgeon Bay, WI. Fruit growth as a function of cell division and expansion was monitored from full bloom until harvest using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Cell count and cell size measurements showed that rootstock had no affect on fruit growth and final size even when crop load effects were removed. Cell division ceased about 5 to 6 weeks after full bloom (WAFB) followed by cell expansion. Fruit size was positively correlated (r2 = 0.85) with cell size, suggesting that differences in fruit size were primarily a result of changes in cell size rather than cell number or intercellular space (IS).

Cytofluorimetric analysis of nuclear DNA during meiosis, fertilization and macronuclear development in the ciliate Tetrahymena pyriformis, syngen 1

1975 ◽  
Vol 17 (3) ◽  
pp. 471-493 ◽  
Author(s):  
F.P. Doerder ◽  
L.E. Debault
Keyword(s):  
Cell Division ◽  
Dna Synthesis ◽  
Nuclear Dna ◽  
Nuclear Dna Content ◽  
Tetrahymena Pyriformis ◽  
Cell Cycles ◽  
Macronuclear Development ◽  
Sister Chromatids ◽  
Nuclear Development ◽  
S Period

Fluorescence cytophotometry was used to study nuclear DNA content and synthesis patterns during meiosis, fertilization and macronuclear development in the ciliated protozoon, Tetrahymena pyriformis, syngen 1. It was found that cells entered conjugation with a G1 (45C) macronucleus and a G2 (4C) micronucleus. During meiosis the micronucleus was reduced to 4 haploid nuclei, each with a 1C amount of DNA; each meiotic product then replicated to 2C, but only the nucleus next to the attachment membrane in each conjugant divided to form the two 1C gametic nuclei. The gametic nuclei replicated to 2C prior to fertilization; hence there was no S-period in the 4C fertilization nucleus (synkaryon). The first postzygotic division products immediately entered an S-period to become 4C, and at the second postzygotic division, each of the two 4C nuclei in each conjugant divided to form one 2C micronucleus and one 2C macronuclear Anlage. The macronuclear Anlagen began DNA synthesis immediately and were about 8C at the completion of conjugation; the micronuclei did not undergo rapid DNA doubling and measured between 2C and 3C when the conjugants separated. The old macronucleus did not participate in any S-period during conjugation and began to decompose after the second postzygotic division; it contained an average of 24C at the end of conjugation. From this sequence of nuclear divisions a pattern emerges that, unless a general cytoplasmic signal for DNA synthesis is suppressed, DNA synthesis always occurs in micronuclear division products immediately following separation of sister chromatids. Nuclear development continued in the first two cell cycles after conjugation. In exconjugants (the first cycle), macronuclear Anlagen underwent two rounds of DNA synthesis to become 32C and both micronuclei also underwent DNA synthesis. However, prior to the first cell division, one micronucleus and the old macronucleus completely disintegrated, and at the first cell division the remaining 4C micronucleus divided and one macronuclear Anlage was distributed to each resulting caryonide. At the end of the second cell cycle, the dividing macronucleus of each caryonide contained about 128C. These results relate to the question of ploidy of macronuclear subunits. It is argued that the G1 macronucleus contains 22 or 23 diploid subunits, each subunit being a copy of the diploid micronuclear genome. It is suggested that unequal macronuclear division relates to the question of subunit ploidy by playing a role in the phenomenon of macronuclear assortment.

The growth of apricot fruit. II. The effects of temperature and gibberellic acid

1967 ◽  
Vol 18 (1) ◽  
pp. 95 ◽  
Author(s):  
DI Jackson ◽  
BG Coombe
Keyword(s):  
Growth Rate ◽  
Cell Division ◽  
Gibberellic Acid ◽  
Fruit Size ◽  
Fruit Growth ◽  
Cell Diameter ◽  
Initial Growth ◽  
Endogenous Gibberellin ◽  
Flower Buds ◽  
Size And Shape

The effect of temperature and gibberellic acid (GA3) applications on apricot fruit have been determined by measurements of fruit size and shape, mesocarp cell number, size, and shape, and endogenous gibberellin. Application of heat during the first 10 nights after anthesis increased the initial growth rate of fruit and of cells in the mesocarp and produced more rapid cell division in this tissue. It did not affect final fruit size or the number and diameter of cells in the mesocarp. Higher temperatures did, however, hasten maturity of fruit. GA3 perfused into branches before anthesis produced an increased drop of flower buds and fruit, raised the ratio of flower buds to leaf buds initiated that season, and resulted in elongated pedicels. Initially, fruit growth rate was increased by GA3, but subsequently it was depressed and final size was below normal. These effects on fruit size were mainly due to effects on the rate of cell division. Some differences were noted in the dimensions of cells but final radial cell diameter did not differ from untreated fruit. GA3-treated fruit ripened sooner than controls. Neither heating nor GA3 treatments affected the level of endogenous gibberellin-like substances in the fruit or their RF on paper chromatograms. There were no significant interactions between temperature and gibberellin in any parameter of apricot fruit growth.

scholarly journals Response of Cell Division and Cell Expansion to Local Fruit Heating in Tomato Fruit

2012 ◽  
Vol 137 (5) ◽  
pp. 294-301 ◽  
Author(s):  
Julienne Fanwoua ◽  
Pieter de Visser ◽  
Ep Heuvelink ◽  
Gerco Angenent ◽  
Xinyou Yin ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Cell Expansion ◽  
Tomato Fruit ◽  
Fruit Size ◽  
Growth Period ◽  
Cell Number ◽  
Fruit Growth ◽  
Growth Responses ◽  
Direction Parallel ◽  
Cell Divisions ◽  
Fruit Skin

To improve our understanding of fruit growth responses to temperature, it is important to analyze temperature effects on underlying fruit cellular processes. This study aimed at analyzing the response of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) fruit size to heating as affected by changes in cell number and cell expansion in different directions. Individual trusses were enclosed into cuvettes and heating was applied either only during the first 7 days after anthesis (DAA), from 7 DAA until fruit maturity (breaker stage), or both. Fruit size and histological characteristics in the pericarp were measured. Heating fruit shortened fruit growth period and reduced final fruit size. Reduction in final fruit size of early-heated fruit was mainly associated with reduction in final pericarp cell volume. Early heating increased the number of cell layers in the pericarp but did not affect the total number of pericarp cells. These results indicate that in the tomato pericarp, periclinal cell divisions respond differently to temperature than anticlinal or randomly oriented cell divisions. Late heating only decreased pericarp thickness significantly. Continuously heating fruit reduced anticlinal cell expansion (direction perpendicular to fruit skin) more than periclinal cell expansion (direction parallel to fruit skin). This study emphasizes the need to measure cell expansion in more than one dimension in histological studies of fruit.

Regulation of bud dormancy by manipulation of ABA in isolated buds of Rosa hybrida cultured in vitro

1999 ◽  
Vol 26 (3) ◽  
pp. 273 ◽  
Author(s):  
Manuel Le Bris ◽  
Nicole Michaux-Ferrière ◽  
Yves Jacob ◽  
Alain Poupet ◽  
Philippe Barthe ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Cell Cycle ◽  
Cell Division ◽  
Nuclear Dna ◽  
Nuclear Dna Content ◽  
Control Culture ◽  
Rosa Hybrida ◽  
Bud Dormancy ◽  
G2 Phase ◽  
Intense Activity

In vitro cultures showed that the proximal buds isolated from a rose (Rosa hybrida L. cv. Ruidriko Vivaldi®) stem were endodormant. Growth and a high percentage of bud break could be observed when cultures were treated with fluridone, an inhibitor of carotenoid synthesis. Flow cytometry determination of nuclear DNA content revealed that cell cycle activity of endodormant buds was arrested in the G 1 phase. Upon culture, the large decrease in bud ABA content was responsible for the progress from G1 to G2 phase whatever the culture medium. However, in control culture, neither cell division nor leaf primordium initiation could be observed and cells appeared stably arrested in G2 . By contrast, with fluridone, an additional ABA decrease was observed resulting from an inhibition of its synthesis inside the bud. New leaf primordia were initiated and many figures of mitosis could be observed, indicating that intense activity of cell division occurred after DNA replication. Therefore, the results indicate that, as long as ABA was synthesized inside the buds, cell cycle was arrested in G2 phase and buds remained dormant. Continued in situ ABA biosynthesis appears, therefore, to be required for the maintenance of bud dormancy.

scholarly journals EjBZR1 represses fruit enlargement by binding to the EjCYP90 promoter in loquat

2021 ◽  
Vol 8 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Wenbing Su ◽  
Zikun Shao ◽  
Man Wang ◽  
Xiaoqing Gan ◽  
Xianghui Yang ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Large Scale ◽  
Crop Yields ◽  
Fruit Size ◽  
Plant Size ◽  
Cell Number ◽  
Fruit Growth ◽  
Eriobotrya Japonica ◽  
Scale Production ◽  
Virus Induced Gene Silencing ◽  
P450 Gene

AbstractLoquat (Eriobotrya japonica) is a subtropical tree that bears fruit that ripens during late spring. Fruit size is one of the dominant factors inhibiting the large-scale production of this fruit crop. To date, little is known about fruit size regulation. In this study, we first discovered that cell size is more important to fruit size than cell number in loquat and that the expression of the EjBZR1 gene is negatively correlated with cell and fruit size. Virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) of EjBZR1 led to larger cells and fruits in loquat, while its overexpression reduced cell and plant size in Arabidopsis. Moreover, both the suppression and overexpression of EjBZR1 inhibited the expression of brassinosteroid (BR) biosynthesis genes, especially that of EjCYP90A. Further experiments indicated that EjCYP90A, a cytochrome P450 gene, is a fruit growth activator, while EjBZR1 binds to the BRRE (CGTGTG) motif of the EjCYP90A promoter to repress its expression and fruit cell enlargement. Overall, our results demonstrate a possible pathway by which EjBZR1 directly targets EjCYP90A and thereby affects BR biosynthesis, which influences cell expansion and, consequently, fruit size. These findings help to elucidate the molecular functions of BZR1 in fruit growth and thus highlight a useful genetic improvement that can lead to increased crop yields by repressing gene expression.

scholarly journals Regulation of Fruit Growth and Fruit Size in Apple

HortScience ◽  
2005 ◽  
Vol 40 (4) ◽  
pp. 1097A-1097
Author(s):  
Anish Malladi ◽  
Peter Goldsbrough ◽  
Peter Hirst
Keyword(s):  
Gene Expression ◽  
Cell Cycle ◽  
Cell Division ◽  
Fruit Development ◽  
Fruit Size ◽  
Cell Number ◽  
Rt Pcr ◽  
Cell Production ◽  
Golden Delicious ◽  
Dividing Cells

Fruit development in apple cultivars varying in their ultimate fruit size was analyzed using cytology, flow cytometry (FCM), and semi-quantitative RT-PCR. Fruit size variation across cultivars was largely explained by variation in cell number. The cell division phase lasted for less than 30 days in all varieties, less than previously believed. A distinct overlap between the cell division and cell expansion phases was present. Analysis of the relative cell production rate (rCPR) showed a major peak about 10 days after full bloom (DAFB) after which it declined. Comparison of the rCPR across varieties suggested distinct patterns of cell production with `Gala' having a low but sustained rCPR, `Pixy Crunch' a short but high rCPR, and `Golden Delicious' having a high and sustained rCPR. FCM analysis also showed similar patterns with a peak in the proportion of dividing cells about 10 DAFB followed by a decline. To further understand regulation of cell number, four cell cycle related genes were cloned from `Gala'. Cyclin Dependent Kinase B (CDK B) and Cyclin B were found to be highly cell division phase specific in their expression. Analysis of gene expression by semi-quantitative RT-PCR indicated peak expression of these two genes at 5-10 DAFB, consistent with the peaks in rCPR and proportion of dividing cells. Comparison of gene expression across the varieties showed higher peak expression of the above genes in the larger-fruited `Golden Delicious' than in the smaller-fruited `Gala.' This study provides novel insight into the regulation of fruit development in apple and also suggests a role for the cell cycle genes in fruit size regulation.

scholarly journals Apple Fruit Growth and Cell Division in Relation to Embryo and Endosperm Development in Two Climates, New York State and Washington State

HortScience ◽  
2005 ◽  
Vol 40 (4) ◽  
pp. 1097B-1097 ◽  
Author(s):  
Martin C. Goffinet ◽  
James R. McFerson ◽  
Alan N. Lakso
Keyword(s):  
New York ◽  
Cell Division ◽  
New York State ◽  
Cell Number ◽  
Endosperm Development ◽  
Washington State ◽  
Fruit Growth ◽  
York State ◽  
Wall Formation ◽  
Cortex Cell

In 2002 in New York State, we collected king fruit of `Gala' and `Red Delicious' on fruiting spurs from 0 to 66 days after full bloom (DAB). In 2003 in Washington State, we collected king fruit of these cultivars from 14 to 62 DAB. At each collection we determined radial cell number across the fruit cortex and developmental stage of the embryo and endosperm in seeds. Fruit diameter was slightly greater in Washington fruit than in New York fruit until about 40 DAB; thereafter, New York `Delicious' outgrew Washington `Delicious', while `Gala' in the two climates (and two different years) grew identically. The New York fruits had a much earlier rise in fruit growth rate and maintained a slightly higher rate throughout the period. The cortex thickness of Washington fruit was greater than that of New York fruit for both cultivars. Most rapid cell division in the cortex occurred between 10 and 28 DAB and, by 40 DAB, most cell proliferation had ceased. The Washington fruit formed more cells across the radius than did New York fruit. Cortex thickness increased with respect to increase in cortex cell number about 30% to 40% faster in Washington fruit than in New York fruit. Developmental stages of embryos and endosperm followed a sigmoid time pattern for both cultivars in both states. By 60 DAB, embryos and endosperm reached their maximum stage of development. In both cultivars and states, cell divisions were nearly completed by the time the embryo and endosperm approached stage 3: for embryos this is the heart-shaped stage, for endosperm it is near completion of cell wall formation. The completion of wall formation in the endosperm, the near completion of cortex cell division, and the generation of the cotyledons and apical meristems in the embryo are highly correlated processes. We saw no evidence that endosperm development precedes embryo development.

scholarly journals Effects of Endogenous Hormones and Sugars on Fruit Size Driven by Cell Division between Korla Fragrant Pear and Its Bud Mutation

HortScience ◽  
2021 ◽  
pp. 1-8
Author(s):  
Jia Tian ◽  
Yue Wen ◽  
Feng Zhang ◽  
Jingyi Sai ◽  
Yan Zhang ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Cell Division ◽  
Cell Volume ◽  
Chromosome Doubling ◽  
Fruit Size ◽  
Tree Breeding ◽  
Cell Number ◽  
Endogenous Hormones ◽  
Glucose Content ◽  
Bud Mutation ◽  
The Difference

Large-fruit bud mutations are important factors in fruit tree breeding. However, little is known about the differences between varieties and bud mutations. The ploidy identification of Korla fragrant pear (Pyrus sinkiangensis Yu) and its large bud mutation Zaomeixiang pear showed that the large-fruit characteristic was not caused by chromosome doubling. By counting mesocarp cells at different stages, we found that the number of cells increased continuously after pollination, and the difference was the greatest at 28 days after full bloom (DAFB), and was about 9.4 × 106. After 28 days, the difference in cell volume became bigger and bigger, so both the cell volume and cell number caused the difference in fruit size between Korla fragrant pear and Zaomeixiang pear. To obtain more insights into the differences in fruit size driven by cell division, we analyzed the endogenous hormones [indole ascetic acid (IAA), zeatin riboside (ZR), gibberellic acid (GA), and abscisic acid (ABA)], and the main sugars (glucose, fructose, sucrose, and sorbitol). The ZR content of Zaomeixiang pear was always greater than that of Korla fragrant pear at all stages. The ABA content was the opposite except for at 7 DAFB during cell division; the greatest difference was 30.87 ng/g, which appeared at 28 DAFB. ABA and ZR correlated negatively with cell number. After 7 DAFB, the ratio of IAA/ABA, ZR/ABA, and GA/ABA in Zaomeixiang pear was always greater than that for Korla fragrant pear at 28 DAFB. The difference in glucose content at 21 DAFB was the greatest, at 4.80 ng/g. Large amounts of sorbitol accumulated during whole-cell division. Glucose and sorbitol correlated positively with cell numbers. In summary, the data suggest that the different contents of glucose, sorbitol, ZR, and ABA, and the ratio of endogenous hormones might be related to cell division in Korla fragrant pear and Zaomeixiang pear. The result provides a theoretical basis for the large-size fruit’s high-quality production and genetic breeding of Korla fragrant pear and its bud mutation.

Developmental variability within and between mouse expanding blastocysts and their ICMs

Development ◽  
1985 ◽  
Vol 86 (1) ◽  
pp. 311-336
Author(s):  
Julia C. Chisholm ◽  
Martin H. Johnson ◽  
Paul D. Warren ◽  
Tom P. Fleming ◽  
Susan J. Pickering
Keyword(s):  
Cell Cycle ◽  
Cell Size ◽  
Dna Content ◽  
Nuclear Dna ◽  
Nuclear Dna Content ◽  
Cell Number ◽  
Developmental Potential ◽  
Present Evidence ◽  
Cell Cycling

We have attempted to reduce the developmental heterogeneity amongst populations of mouse blastocysts by synchronizing embryos to the first visible signs of blastocoel formation. Using embryos timed in this way, we have examined the extent of variation of inside and outside cell number and of inside cell size, nuclear DNA content and developmental potential, between and within embryos of a similar age postcavitation. The overall impression gained is one of wide heterogeneity in inside:outside cell number ratios and in cell cycling and its relation to cavitation among embryos of similar age postcavitation. However, the simplest explanation of our results suggests that cavitation generally begins at a time when most outside cells are in their sixth developmental cell cycle and that outside cells, as a population, are a little ahead of inside cells in their cell cycling. Additionally we present evidence that, within at least some individual inner cell masses (ICM), there is intraembryo variation in the time at which inside cell developmental potential becomes restricted.

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