Meta-analysis of the health effects of using the glycaemic index in meal-planning

Diabetes mellitus and CVD are some of the leading causes of mortality and morbidity. Accumulating data indicate that a diet characterised by low-glycaemic index (GI) foods may improve the management of diabetes or lipid profiles. The objective of the present meta-analysis was to critically analyse the scientific evidence that low-GI diets have beneficial effects on carbohydrate and lipid metabolism compared with high-GI diets. We searched for randomised controlled trials with a crossover or parallel design published in English between 1981 and 2003, investigating the effect of low-GI v. high-GI diets on markers for carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. Unstandardised differences in mean values were examined using the random effects model. The main outcomes were fructosamine, glycated Hb (HbA1c), HDL-cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, total cholesterol and triacylglycerol. Literature searches identified sixteen studies that met the strict inclusion criteria. Low-GI diets significantly reduced fructosamine by –0·1 (95 % CI –0·20, 0·00) mmol/l (P=0·05), HbA1c by 0·27 (95 % CI –0·5, –0·03) % (P=0·03), total cholesterol by –0·33 (95 % CI –0·47, –0·18) mmol/l (P>0·0001) and tended to reduce LDL-cholesterol in type 2 diabetic subjects by –0·15 (95 % CI –0·31, –0·00) mmol/l (P=0·06) compared with high-GI diets. No changes were observed in HDL-cholesterol and triacylglycerol concentrations. No substantial heterogeneity was detected, suggesting that the effects of low-GI diets in these studies were uniform. Results of the present meta-analysis support the use of the GI as a scientifically based tool to enable selection of carbohydrate-containing foods to reduce total cholesterol and to improve overall metabolic control of diabetes.

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Effects of diacerein intake on cardiometabolic profiles in type 2 diabetics: a systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials.

Current Medicinal Chemistry ◽

10.2174/0929867327666200728134755 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 27 ◽

Author(s):

Peyman Nowrouzi-Sohrabi ◽

Reza Tabrizi ◽

Mohammad Jalali ◽

Navid Jamali ◽

Shahla Rezaei ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Systematic Review ◽

Clinical Trials ◽

Body Weight ◽

Total Cholesterol ◽

Ldl Cholesterol ◽

Meta Analysis ◽

Hdl Cholesterol ◽

Cochrane Central Register ◽

Statistical Heterogeneity

Introduction: A systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials was undertaken to evaluate the effect of diacerein intake on cardiometabolic profiles in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Methods: Electronic databases such as PubMed, EMBASE, Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials were searched from inception to 31 July 2019. Statistical heterogeneity was evaluated using Cochran’s Q test and I-square (I2 ) statistic. Data were pooled using random-effect models and weighted mean difference (WMD). Results: From 1,733 citations, seven clinical trials were eligible for inclusion and meta-analysis. A significant reduction in hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) (WMD -0.73; 95%CI -1.25 to -0.21; P= 0.006; I2 = 72.2%) and body mass index (BMI) (WMD -0.55; 95%CI -1.03 to -0.07; P= 0.026; I2 = 9.5%) were identified. However, no significant effect of diacerein intake was identified on fasting blood sugar (FBS) (WMD - 9.00; 95%CI -22.57 to 4.57; P= 0.194; I2 = 60.5%), homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) (WMD 0.39; 95%CI 0.95 to 1.73; P= 0.569; I2 = 2.2%), body weight (WMD -0.54; 95%CI -1.10 to 0.02; P= 0.059), triglycerides (WMD -0.56; 95%CI -24.16 to 23.03; P= 0.963; I2 = 0.0%), total-cholesterol (WMD -0.21; 95%CI -12.19 to 11.78; P= 0.973; I2 = 0.0%), HDL-cholesterol (WMD -0.96; 95%CI -2.85 to 0.93; P= 0.321; I2 = 0.0%), and LDL-cholesterol levels (WMD -0.09; 95%CI -8.43 to 8.25; P= 0.983; I2 = 37.8%). Conclusion: Diacerein intake may reduce HbA1c and BMI; however, no evidence of effect was observed for FBS, HOMA-IR, body weight, triglycerides, total-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol or LDL-cholesterol.

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Abstract P065: Effects of Palm Oil Consumption on Blood Lipids: A Meta-Analysis of Clinical Trials

Circulation ◽

10.1161/circ.129.suppl_1.p065 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 129 (suppl_1) ◽

Author(s):

Ye Sun ◽

Nithya Neelakantan ◽

Yi Wu ◽

Rob M van Dam

Keyword(s):

Total Cholesterol ◽

Vegetable Oils ◽

Palm Oil ◽

Ldl Cholesterol ◽

Meta Analysis ◽

Geographical Location ◽

Hdl Cholesterol ◽

Oil Consumption ◽

Animal Fats ◽

Study Results

Introduction: Palm oil is among the most commonly consumed cooking oils worldwide and, in contrast to most other vegetable oils, contains a high amount of saturated fatty acids. It has been suggested that palm oil has unique characteristics resulting in less detrimental effects on blood lipids than expected from its fat content. We therefore evaluated the effect of palm oil consumption on blood lipid concentrations as compared with vegetable oils high in natural unsaturated fatty acids, partially hydrogenated vegetable oils (rich in trans -fat), or animal fats. Methods: We searched PubMed, the Cochrane Library, Scopus, ProQuest, and Web of Science databases up to 31 October 2012 for trials of at least 2 weeks that compared the effects of palm oil consumption with at least one of the aforementioned comparison oils. Data on effects on total, LDL and HDL cholesterols and triglycerides were pooled using random effects meta-analysis. Results: A total of 25 studies were identified comparing palm oil with natural highly unsaturated vegetable oils. Palm oil significantly increased total cholesterol by 0.32 mmol/L (95% CI: 0.19, 0.44; I 2 =85.9%), increased LDL cholesterol by 0.20 mmol/L (95% CI: 0.09, 0.32; I 2 =82.9%), and increased HDL cholesterol by 0.02 mmol/L (95% CI: 0.01, 0.04; I 2 =56%) as compared with control oils. The considerable amount of heterogeneity in study results were partly explained by the type of control oil used, funding source, geographical location, and level of intake of test oil. Statistical tests suggested that this meta-analysis might be subject to publication bias. Eight studies were identified comparing palm oil with partially hydrogenated vegetable oils. When compared to trans -fat rich oils, palm oil significantly increased HDL cholesterol by 0.07 mmol/L (95% CI: 0.05, 0.09; I 2 =19.2%). However, palm oil did not significantly change total cholesterol (0.15 mmol/L, 95% CI: -0.04, 0.33), LDL cholesterol (0.11 mmol/L, 95% CI: -0.04, 0.27), or triglycerides (-0.02 mmol/L, 95% CI: -0.12, 0.07). Geographical location, method of preparation of test oils, and level of intake of trans -fat in control intervention were contributors to the heterogeneity in the study results. The pooled results from the 2 studies on comparison between palm oil and animal fats did not show a significant difference between the two dietary groups for total cholesterol (0.00 mmol/L, 95% CI: -0.08, 0.08), LDL cholesterol (-0.01 mmol/L, 95% CI: -0.08, 0.07), HDL cholesterol (0.00 mmol/L, 95% CI: -0.03, 0.04), or triglycerides (0.02 mmol/L, 95% CI: -0.15, 0.17). Conclusions: Palm oil consumption results in higher LDL cholesterol levels than other natural unsaturated vegetable oils. However, palm oil may be preferable to trans -fat rich oils based on its effect on HDL cholesterol. More studies are needed to evaluate the effects of palm oil consumption on incidence of coronary heart diseases.

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Abstract MP66: Cheese Consumption and Blood Lipids; a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

Circulation ◽

10.1161/circ.129.suppl_1.mp66 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 129 (suppl_1) ◽

Author(s):

Janette de Goede ◽

Johanna M Geleijnse ◽

Eric L Ding ◽

Sabita S. Soedamah-Muthu

Keyword(s):

Total Cholesterol ◽

Blood Lipids ◽

Ldl Cholesterol ◽

Meta Analysis ◽

Hdl Cholesterol ◽

Fat Content ◽

Control Treatment ◽

Controlled Trials ◽

Randomized Controlled ◽

Lipids And Lipoproteins

Aims: Cheese may have a different effect on lipids and lipoproteins than expected from the saturated fat content. We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) to examine the effect of cheese consumption on blood lipids and lipoproteins in healthy populations. Methods: A systematic search in MEDLINE, EMBASE, Scopus, Cababstracts, Cochrane Controlled Trials Register, Clinicaltrials.gov was performed to identify RCTs of cheese supplementation in human adults with total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, triglycerides as a primary or secondary outcome (published until September 2013). A quantitative meta-analysis was performed if more than four RCTs with a comparable control treatment were available. Within person-differences of lipids with corresponding standard errors caused by the cheese compared to the control treatment were pooled (random effects model, STATA 11.0). Results: We identified 15 RCTs, published between 1978 and 2012. We pooled four RCTs comparing the effect of cheese intake to butter with a similar fat content on plasma levels of total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol and triglycerides. The amount of cheese used in these trials was rather large, ranging between 120 and 205 g/d. This is approximately equivalent to 3 to 5 cheese servings per day. Intake of cheese (weighted mean difference: 142.6 g/d) reduced total cholesterol significantly by -0.27 mmol/l (95% CI: -0.36 to -0.18), LDL-C by -0.21 mmol/l (95% CI: -0.29 to -0.13), and HDL-C by -0.05 (95% CI: -0.08 to -0.02) compared to butter. The pooled effect on triglycerides was 0.004 (95% CI: -0.058 to 0.065). No heterogeneity was observed (all I 2 =0%). Cheese was also compared with tofu (n=4 RCTs), fat-modified cheese (n=3), CLA-rich cheese (n=3), milk (n=2), fish (n=1), egg white (n=1). Trials that compared cheese with tofu or fat-modified cheese suggest that differential effects of the products can mainly be attributed to the differences in fatty acid content of the diets. Comparisons with CLA-rich cheese were of limited value because those studied the effects of CLA (and not cheese). Too few trials with milk, egg white, and fish were available to draw conclusions. Conclusions: Based on a limited number of trials, cheese appears less hypercholesterolemic than butter with a similar fat content. Differences in plasma lipids based on cheese compared with tofu and fat-modified products are likely to be caused by the different fat content of the total diets.

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Effect of vitamin D supplementation on serum lipid profiles: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Nutrition Reviews ◽

10.1093/nutrit/nuz037 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 77 (12) ◽

pp. 890-902 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

Daniel T Dibaba

Keyword(s):

Vitamin D ◽

Total Cholesterol ◽

Serum Lipid ◽

Ldl Cholesterol ◽

Meta Analysis ◽

Density Lipoprotein ◽

Hdl Cholesterol ◽

Vitamin D Supplementation ◽

Lipid Profiles

Abstract Context Vitamin D deficiency is highly prevalent across the world. The existing evidence suggests vitamin D may have beneficial effects on serum lipid profiles and thus cardiovascular health. Objective The objective of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to examine the effect of vitamin D supplementation on serum lipid profiles. Data Source Original randomized controlled trials (RCTs) examining the effect of vitamin D supplementation on serum lipid profiles and published before July 2018 were identified by searching online databases, including PubMed, Google Scholar, and ScienceDirect, using a combination of relevant keywords. Data Extraction Data on study characteristics, effect size, measure of variation, type of vitamin D supplementation, and duration of follow-up were extracted by the author. Data Analysis PRISMA guidelines for systematic reviews were followed. Random effects (DerSimonian and Laird [D-V)] models were used to pool standardized mean differences in total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, and triglycerides between the active and the placebo arms of RCT studies. Between-study heterogeneities were assessed using Cochrane Q and I2, and publication bias was assessed using Begg’s test, Egger’s test, and funnel plot. Results A total of 41 RCTs comprising 3434 participants (n = 1699 in the vitamin D supplementation arm and n = 1735 in the placebo arm) were identified and included in the meta-analysis. Approximately 63.4% of study participants were women, with 14 studies conducted entirely among women. Approximately 24% of the trials had follow-up duration >6 months, whereas the remaining 76% had follow-up duration of <6 months. The standardized mean differences (SMDs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for comparing the change from baseline to follow-up between the vitamin D supplementation arm and the placebo (control) arm were as follows: total cholesterol = –0.17 (–0.28 to –0.06); LDL cholesterol = –0.12 (–0.23 to –0.01); triglycerides = –0.12 (–0.25 to 0.01); and HDL cholesterol = –0.19 (–0.44 to 0.06). After removing a trial that was an outlier based on the magnitude of the effect size, the SMD for triglycerides was –0.15 (–0.24 to –0.06) and that for HDL cholesterol was –0.10 (–0.28 to 0.09). The improvements in total cholesterol and triglycerides were more pronounced in participants with baseline vitamin D deficiency. Conclusions Vitamin D supplementation appeared to have a beneficial effect on reducing serum total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and triglyceride levels but not HDL cholesterol levels. Vitamin D supplementation may be useful in hypercholesterolemia patients with vitamin D insufficiency who are at high risk of cardiovascular diseases.

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The latest research on coconut oil and human health

INFORM International News on Fats Oils and Related Materials ◽

10.21748/inform.11.2021.28 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 32 (10) ◽

pp. 28-29

Author(s):

Rebecca Guenard ◽

Keyword(s):

Clinical Trials ◽

Total Cholesterol ◽

Ldl Cholesterol ◽

Meta Analysis ◽

Coconut Oil ◽

Hdl Cholesterol ◽

Blood Lipid ◽

Oil Consumption ◽

Controlled Clinical Trials ◽

Human Adults

A meta-analysis of clinical trials comparing the effects of coconut oil consumption with other fats focused only on controlled clinical trials performed on human adults with a duration exceeding two weeks (long enough to let blood lipid concentrations stabilize).coconut oil consumption significantly increased total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, and HDL-cholesterol concentrations compared with non-tropical vegetable oils and significantly increased total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol concentrations compared with palm oil.

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Informativity of lipid metabolism indicators for diagnostics and estimation of the effectiveness of treatment of dogs with pancreatitis

ScienceRise Biological Science ◽

10.15587/2519-8025.2021.241207 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 26-32

Author(s):

Andrii Zemlianskyi ◽

Olga Tymoshenko ◽

Andriy Zakhariev ◽

Yevheniia Vashchyk ◽

Nataliia Seliukova ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Lipid Metabolism ◽

Total Cholesterol ◽

Ldl Cholesterol ◽

Treatment Effectiveness ◽

Clinical Symptoms ◽

Hdl Cholesterol ◽

Laboratory Research ◽

Morphological Studies ◽

Lipid Metabolism Disorders ◽

Low Hdl

The aim of the research: to substantiate the pathogenetic role of lipid metabolism disorders in the occurrence and course of pancreatitis in dogs and to establish the informativeness of its indicators for diagnosis and evaluation of treatment effectiveness based on clinical and laboratory research methods. Materials and methods. Used clinical, instrumental, laboratory methods, including morphological studies of blood, urine, biochemical studies of serum: determination of the lipid profile by the content of triacylglycerols, total cholesterol, lipoproteins cholesterol of very low – HDL, low – LDL and high density – VLDL, traditional tests and statistical methods. Results. It was found that the most significant changes are inherent in the metabolism of lipids and lipoproteins in the serum: significantly increased concentrations of cholesterol, triacylglycerols, LDL cholesterol and especially LDL cholesterol. The content of HDL cholesterol, on the contrary, in the acute course of pancreatitis is below normal. The content of triacylglycerols, LDL cholesterol and VLDL remains high. Total cholesterol is normalized, and the level of HDL is below normal. Conclusions. Serum lipidogram of dogs without clinical symptoms of pathology does not differ in composition from the results obtained by other researchers. For pancreatitis in dogs, the concentration of total cholesterol increases by 1.9 times, triacylglycerols – by 5.4 times, cholesterol VLDL – in 6.0 times and LDL cholesterol – 7.7 times. The content of HDL cholesterol, in contrast, in the acute course of pancreatitis is 1.5 times lower than in clinically healthy dogs. Treatment reduces the degree of hyperenzymemia by ALT and AST, but α-amylase activity is not normalized in dogs. Above normal levels of triacylglycerols, LDL cholesterol and VLDL, and HDL cholesterol remain low, despite treatment

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Cholesterol and triglyceride levels in first-episode psychosis: systematic review and meta-analysis

The British Journal of Psychiatry ◽

10.1192/bjp.bp.117.200907 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 211 (6) ◽

pp. 339-349 ◽

Cited By ~ 56

Author(s):

Toby Pillinger ◽

Katherine Beck ◽

Brendon Stubbs ◽

Oliver D. Howes

Keyword(s):

Total Cholesterol ◽

Ldl Cholesterol ◽

Meta Analysis ◽

Density Lipoprotein ◽

Hdl Cholesterol ◽

First Episode Psychosis ◽

First Episode ◽

Absolute Increase ◽

Cholesterol Levels ◽

Episode Psychosis

BackgroundThe extent of metabolic and lipid changes in first-episode psychosis (FEP) is unclear.AimsTo investigate whether individuals with FEP and no or minimal antipsychotic exposure show lipid and adipocytokine abnormalities compared with healthy controls.MethodWe conducted a meta-analysis of studies examining lipid and adipocytokine parameters in individuals with FEP and no or minimal antipsychotic exposurev.a healthy control group. Studies reported fasting total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, triglycerides and leptin levels.ResultsOf 2070 citations retrieved, 20 case–control studies met inclusion criteria including 1167 patients and 1184 controls. Total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol levels were significantly decreased in patientsv.controls, corresponding to an absolute reduction of 0.26mmol/L and 0.15mmol/L respectively. Triglyceride levels were significantly increased in the patient group, corresponding to an absolute increase of 0.08 mmol/L However, HDL cholesterol and leptin levels were not altered in patientsv.controls.ConclusionsTotal and LDL cholesterol levels are reduced in FEP, indicating that hypercholesterolaemia in patients with chronic disorder is secondary and potentially modifiable. In contrast, triglycerides are elevated in FEP. Hypertriglyceridaemia is a feature of type 2 diabetes mellitus, therefore this finding adds to the evidence for glucose dysregulation in this cohort. These findings support early intervention targeting nutrition, physical activity and appropriate antipsychotic prescription.

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Beneficial effect of a weight-stable, low-fat/low-saturated fat/low-glycaemic index diet to reduce liver fat in older subjects

British Journal Of Nutrition ◽

10.1017/s0007114512002966 ◽

2012 ◽

Vol 109 (6) ◽

pp. 1096-1104 ◽

Cited By ~ 42

Author(s):

Kristina M. Utzschneider ◽

Jennifer L. Bayer-Carter ◽

Matthew D. Arbuckle ◽

Jaime M. Tidwell ◽

Todd L. Richards ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Insulin Resistance ◽

Total Cholesterol ◽

Ldl Cholesterol ◽

Saturated Fat ◽

Hdl Cholesterol ◽

Glycaemic Index ◽

Liver Fat ◽

Low Fat ◽

Alcoholic Fatty Liver ◽

Older Subjects

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease is associated with insulin resistance and dyslipidaemia and can progress to steatohepatitis and cirrhosis. We sought to determine whether dietary fat and saturated fat content alter liver fat in the absence of weight change in an older population. Liver fat was quantified by magnetic resonance spectroscopy before and after 4 weeks on an isoenergetic low-fat/low-saturated fat/low-glycaemic index (LGI) (LSAT: 23 % fat/7 % saturated fat/GI < 55) or a high-fat/high-saturated fat/high-GI (HSAT: 43 % fat/24 % saturated fat/GI>70) diet in older subjects. In the present study, twenty subjects (seven males/thirteen females; age 69·3 (sem1·6) years, BMI 26·9 (sem0·8) kg/m2) were randomised to the LSAT diet and fifteen subjects (six males/nine females; age 68·6 (sem1·8) years, BMI 28·1 (sem0·9) kg/m2) to the HSAT diet. Weight remained stable. Liver fat decreased significantly on the LSAT diet (median 2·2 (interquartile range (IQR) 3·1) to 1·7 (IQR 1·8) %,P= 0·002) but did not change on the HSAT diet (median 1·2 (IQR 4·1) to 1·6 (IQR 3·9) %). The LSAT diet lowered fasting glucose and total cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol and raised TAG (P< 0·05), while the HSAT diet had no effect on glucose or HDL-cholesterol but increased total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol (P< 0·05). Fasting insulin and homeostasis model of insulin resistance did not change significantly on either diet, but the Matsuda index of insulin sensitivity improved on the LSAT diet (P< 0·05). Assignment to the LSATv.HSAT diet was a predictor of changes in lipid parameters but not liver fat. We conclude that diet composition may be an important factor in the accumulation of liver fat, with a low-fat/low-saturated fat/LGI diet being beneficial.

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Psyllium-Enriched Cereals Lower Blood Total Cholesterol and LDL Cholesterol, but Not HDL Cholesterol, in Hypercholesterolemic Adults: Results of a Meta-Analysis

Journal of Nutrition ◽

10.1093/jn/127.10.1973 ◽

1997 ◽

Vol 127 (10) ◽

pp. 1973-1980 ◽

Cited By ~ 105

Author(s):

Beth H. Olson ◽

Sallee M. Anderson ◽

Mark P. Becker ◽

James W. Anderson ◽

Donald B. Hunninghake ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Total Cholesterol ◽

Ldl Cholesterol ◽

Meta Analysis ◽

Hdl Cholesterol ◽

Lower Blood ◽

Blood Total Cholesterol

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Postprandial lipid responses to standard carbohydrates used to determine glycaemic index values

British Journal Of Nutrition ◽

10.1017/s000711451300130x ◽

2013 ◽

Vol 110 (10) ◽

pp. 1782-1788 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Sonia Vega-López ◽

Lynne M. Ausman ◽

Nirupa R. Matthan ◽

Alice H. Lichtenstein

Keyword(s):

Total Cholesterol ◽

Ldl Cholesterol ◽

Plasma Cholesterol ◽

Hdl Cholesterol ◽

Glycaemic Index ◽

Risk Indicators ◽

Metabolic Effects ◽

Oral Glucose ◽

White Bread ◽

Postprandial Lipid

Prior studies assessing the metabolic effects of different types of carbohydrates have focused on their glycaemic response. However, the response of postprandial cardiometabolic risk indicators has not been considered in these studies. The present study assessed postprandial lipid responses to two forms of carbohydrates used as reference foods for glycaemic index determinations, white bread (50 g available carbohydrate) and glucose (50 g), under controlled conditions and with intra-individual replicate determinations. A total of twenty adults (20–70 years) underwent two cycles of challenges with each pair of reference foods (four challenges/person), administered in a random order on separate days under standard conditions. Serum lipids (total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, TAG and NEFA), glucose and insulin were monitored for 5 h post-ingestion. Oral glucose resulted in greater glycaemic and insulinaemic responses than white bread for the first 90 min and a greater subsequent decline after 120 min (P =0·0001). The initial decline in serum NEFA concentrations was greater after the oral glucose than after the white bread challenge, as was the rebound after 150 min (P =0·001). Nevertheless, the type of carbohydrate had no significant effect on postprandial total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol and HDL-cholesterol concentrations. Following an initial modest rise in TAG concentrations in response to both challenges, the values dropped below the fasting values for oral glucose but not for the white bread challenge. These data suggest that the type of carbohydrate used to determine the glycaemic index, bread or glucose, has little or modest effects on postprandial plasma cholesterol concentrations. Differences in TAG and NEFA concentrations over the 5 h time period were modest, and their clinical relevance is unclear.

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