Dietary Sources and Sodium/Salt Intake in Youngsters of Costa Rica

Abstract Objectives To describe major dietary sources of sodium/salt and estimate its intake among children and adolescents of Costa Rica. Methods Cross-sectional study of a nationally representative sample of 2677 youngsters aged 7 to 18 years who completed an intake food frequency. Wald F and t tests were used to examine differences between groups. Results Average daily sodium intake was highest among adolescents aged 12 to 18 years (3965 ± 920 mg). The lowest average daily sodium intake was particularly among girls under 12 years of age (2999 ± 94 mg). Twelve food categories contributed to more than half (58%) of Costa Rican youngsters sodium/salt which include: pizza, snacks, hamburger, hot dog, sausage, soups, puff pastry snacks, cheese, fried chicken, sauces/dressings, salted seeds and popcorn. Conclusions Costa Rican youngsters consume almost more than twice of recommended dietary sodium/salt, increasing their risk of high blood pressure and cardiovascular diseases. Funding Sources None.

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Urine Spot Samples Can Be Used to Estimate 24-Hour Urinary Sodium Excretion in Children

Journal of Nutrition ◽

10.1093/jn/nxy211 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 148 (12) ◽

pp. 1946-1953 ◽

Cited By ~ 6

Author(s):

Magali Rios-Leyvraz ◽

Pascal Bovet ◽

René Tabin ◽

Bernard Genin ◽

Michel Russo ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Sodium Excretion ◽

Salt Intake ◽

Sodium Intake ◽

Population Level ◽

Urinary Sodium Excretion ◽

Cross Sectional Study ◽

Urinary Sodium ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

High Sodium ◽

Individual Level

ABSTRACT Background The gold standard to assess salt intake is 24-h urine collections. Use of a urine spot sample can be a simpler alternative, especially when the goal is to assess sodium intake at the population level. Several equations to estimate 24-h urinary sodium excretion from urine spot samples have been tested in adults, but not in children. Objective The objective of this study was to assess the ability of several equations and urine spot samples to estimate 24-h urinary sodium excretion in children. Methods A cross-sectional study of children between 6 and 16 y of age was conducted. Each child collected one 24-h urine sample and 3 timed urine spot samples, i.e., evening (last void before going to bed), overnight (first void in the morning), and morning (second void in the morning). Eight equations (i.e., Kawasaki, Tanaka, Remer, Mage, Brown with and without potassium, Toft, and Meng) were used to estimate 24-h urinary sodium excretion. The estimates from the different spot samples and equations were compared with the measured excretion through the use of several statistics. Results Among the 101 children recruited, 86 had a complete 24-h urine collection and were included in the analysis (mean age: 10.5 y). The mean measured 24-h urinary sodium excretion was 2.5 g (range: 0.8–6.4 g). The different spot samples and equations provided highly heterogeneous estimates of the 24-h urinary sodium excretion. The overnight spot samples with the Tanaka and Brown equations provided the most accurate estimates (mean bias: −0.20 to −0.12 g; correlation: 0.48–0.53; precision: 69.7–76.5%; sensitivity: 76.9–81.6%; specificity: 66.7%; and misclassification: 23.0–27.7%). The other equations, irrespective of the timing of the spot, provided less accurate estimates. Conclusions Urine spot samples, with selected equations, might provide accurate estimates of the 24-h sodium excretion in children at a population level. At an individual level, they could be used to identify children with high sodium excretion. This study was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02900261.

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Can Meals Outside Homes Impact Sodium Intake?

Current Developments in Nutrition ◽

10.1093/cdn/nzaa091 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 4 (6) ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Ana Maria Pita Ruiz ◽

Margareth Guimarães Lima ◽

Lhais de Paula Barbosa Medina ◽

Renata Luz Pinto ◽

Marilisa Berti de Azevedo Barros ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Salt Intake ◽

Sodium Intake ◽

Age Groups ◽

Population Based ◽

Cross Sectional Study ◽

Nutrition Survey ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Salt Consumption ◽

Adolescents And Adults ◽

Study Participants

ABSTRACT Background The WHO currently recommends a daily sodium intake of 2 g and has established the goal of a 30% reduction in mean salt intake by 2025. Objective We sought to estimate sodium intake in study participants according to the locations of where they consumed meals and their demographic and socioeconomic characteristics and practices related to salt consumption. Methods A population-based, cross-sectional study was conducted with a sample of 2574 individuals aged ≥10 y who answered the 2015 Campinas-Brazil Nutrition Survey. Mean sodium intake was estimated using a 24-h recall log and associations with the independent variables were tested using generalized regression analysis stratified by age group. Results Sodium intake was higher in male participants as well as adolescents and adults who reported eating ≥1 meal outside the home (6.07% and 7.06% increase, respectively). Per meal, sodium was consumed more outside the home at breakfast, during an afternoon snack, and at dinner among adolescents. No significant differences were found in the analysis by type of meal among the adults and seniors. Conclusions Sodium intake exceeded the WHO recommendation in all age groups analyzed. Having ≥1 meal outside the home was associated with greater sodium intake among adolescents and adults. Measures to regulate the food industry and dietary/nutritional education strategies targeting consumers are important to reducing the sodium intake of the population.

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Dietary sodium intake in urban and rural Malawi, and directions for future interventions

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition ◽

10.1093/ajcn/nqy125 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 108 (3) ◽

pp. 587-593 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

Josephine E Prynn ◽

Louis Banda ◽

Alemayehu Amberbir ◽

Alison J Price ◽

Ndoliwe Kayuni ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Rural Communities ◽

Salt Intake ◽

Sodium Intake ◽

Urinary Sodium ◽

Sub Saharan Africa ◽

Dietary Sodium ◽

Cross Sectional Survey ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Spot Urine ◽

Per Capita

ABSTRACT Background High dietary sodium intake is a major risk factor for hypertension. Data on population sodium intake are scanty in sub-Saharan Africa, despite a high hypertension prevalence in most countries. Objective We aimed to determine daily sodium intake in urban and rural communities in Malawi. Design In an observational cross-sectional survey, data were collected on estimated household-level per capita sodium intake, based on how long participants reported that a defined quantity of plain salt lasts in a household. In a subset of 2078 participants, 24-h urinary sodium was estimated from a morning spot urine sample. Results Of 29,074 participants, 52.8% of rural and 50.1% of urban individuals lived in households with an estimated per capita plain salt consumption >5 g/d. Of participants with urinary sodium data, 90.8% of rural and 95.9% of urban participants had estimated 24-h urinary sodium >2 g/d; there was no correlation between household per capita salt intake and estimated 24-h urinary sodium excretion. Younger adults were more likely to have high urinary sodium and to eat food prepared outside the home than were those over the age of 60 y. Households with a member with previously diagnosed hypertension had reduced odds (OR: 0.59; 95% CI: 0.51, 0.68) of per capita household plain salt intake >5 g/d, compared with those where hypertension was undiagnosed. Conclusions Sodium consumption exceeds the recommended amounts for most of the population in rural and urban Malawi. Population-level interventions for sodium intake reduction with a wide focus are needed, targeting both sources outside the home as well as home cooking. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03422185.

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Sodium and Potassium Intake, the First Step to Control Arterial Hypertension

Integrative Diabetes and Cardiovascular Diseases ◽

10.18314/idcd.v1i1.75 ◽

2016 ◽

Vol 1 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Maria Guedes-Marques ◽

Emanuel Ferreira ◽

Francisco Ferrer ◽

Dilva Silva ◽

Jorge Fortuna ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Salt Intake ◽

Cross Sectional Study ◽

Dietary Sodium ◽

Sectional Study ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Potassium Intake ◽

Prevention And Treatment ◽

Treatment Of Hypertension ◽

Sodium And Potassium ◽

Made In

In Portugal, Hypertension affects 43% of adults. Salt intake reduction and potassium increase are recommended for prevention and treatment of hypertension. This study was designed to determine how dietary sodium and potassium affects blood pressure (BP). Cross-sectional study of 41 patients was made in Centro Hospitalar de Coimbra. Patients BP, as well as their 24-hour urinary excretion of sodium (UNa) and potassium (UK); UNa/UK ratio was calculated. There were highly significant differences for both diastolic BP (DBP) and sistolic BP (SBP) means according to 24h-UNa and UNa/UK values (p 0.001). There was a highly correlation between BP and 24h-UNa, as well as, UNa/UK; stronger with this latest factor. Among BP values, SBP was strongly influenced by 24h-UNa and UNa/UK than DBP (Pearson 0.608 > 0.578 and 0.675 > 0.633, respectively). So, increased potassium intakeshould be considered as a recommendation for prevention and treatment of hypertension, especially in those who are unable to reduce their intake of sodium.

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Abstract P421: Estimation Of Adult Dietary Sodium Intake And Source In Shandong China 2011: Finding From SMASH Project Baseline Survey

Circulation ◽

10.1161/circ.129.suppl_1.p421 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 129 (suppl_1) ◽

Author(s):

Liuxia YAN ◽

Zilong LU ◽

Jixiang MA ◽

Xiaolei GUO ◽

Jiyu ZHANG ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Salt Intake ◽

Sodium Intake ◽

Monosodium Glutamate ◽

Soy Sauce ◽

Dietary Sodium ◽

Baseline Survey ◽

Dietary Salt ◽

Ministry Of Health ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Dietary Recall

Zilong LU, Liuxia YAN, Jixiang MA, Xiaolei GUO, Jiyu ZHANG, Junli TANG, Huicheng WANG, Xiaoning CAI Background: Moderate population salt reduction could reduce blood pressure and the cardiovascular and stroke mortality in the long-term. In 2002, China’s national average dietary salt intake is twice of the recommendation sodium intake limit by Chinese Nutrition Association. To tackle the health burden of excessive salt intake, the former Ministry of Health has chosen Shandong province as national pilot and launched the Shandong & Ministry of Health Action on Salt and Hypertension (SMASH, 2011[[Unable to Display Character: –]]2015) project. Objective: To develop and target intervention priority, a cross-sectional population survey was conducted to collect baseline data on sodium intake and sources in Shandong adults in 2011. Methods: We used multi-stage clustering sampling method to select the provincial representative sample for Shandong adults aged 18~69 years old. The selected adults were invited to participate the questionnaire survey and consecutive three-round 24-hour dietary recall. The Chinese 24-hour dietary recall includes two parts, cooking condiment weighting and the food (exclude the condiment) intake diary. The sodium contents in the condiments and food were calculated by using reference values from China Food Composition 2004. Results: Overall, 2140 community adult residents were included in the data analysis. The total average dietary sodium intake estimated by 24-hour dietary recall was 5745mg (95%CI: 5428-6063). Men (6147mg/d, 5824-6471) consumed higher sodium than women (5339 mg/d, 5006-5673) (P<0.05). The majority of dietary sodium (81%) was from cooking condiments including salt, soy sauce, sauce and monosodium glutamate (MSG), with a mean sodium intake of 4640mg (4360-4920). Out of the cooking condiments, salt added during food preparation was the leading source (63%) of sodium intake, up to 3638mg/d (3397-3879) sodium intake. Sodium intake from processed food was account for 10% of the total sodium intake, averaged at 582 mg (498-666) sodium intake for Shandong adults. Conclusion: The Shandong adults consume excessive sodium than the recommendation intake and most is from the condiments added at cooking.

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Is socioeconomic status associated with dietary sodium intake in Australian children? A cross-sectional study

BMJ Open ◽

10.1136/bmjopen-2012-002106 ◽

2013 ◽

Vol 3 (2) ◽

pp. e002106 ◽

Cited By ~ 13

Author(s):

Carley A Grimes ◽

Karen J Campbell ◽

Lynn J Riddell ◽

Caryl A Nowson

Keyword(s):

Socioeconomic Status ◽

Sodium Intake ◽

Cross Sectional Study ◽

Dietary Sodium ◽

Sectional Study ◽

Cross Sectional

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Knowledge and Practices Related to Salt Intake among Saudi Adults

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health ◽

10.3390/ijerph17165749 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 17 (16) ◽

pp. 5749

Author(s):

Mahitab A. Hanbazaza ◽

Walaa A. Mumena

Keyword(s):

Blood Pressure ◽

Saudi Arabia ◽

Salt Intake ◽

Sodium Intake ◽

Linear Regression Analysis ◽

Multiple Linear Regression Analysis ◽

Cross Sectional Study ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Face To Face ◽

Study Participants

In Saudi Arabia, data regarding salt-related knowledge and practices are still lacking. This cross-sectional study aimed to investigate salt-related knowledge and practices and associated factors in Saudi adults. Data on the following variables were collected from 467 participants living in Madinah or Jeddah via face-to-face interviews: demographics, anthropometrics (height and weight), blood pressure (assessed using a digital sphygmomanometer), salt-related knowledge, and practices related to salt intake. Salt-related knowledge and practices were limited among the study participants; however, they were not correlated (rs = 0.10). Multiple linear regression analysis revealed that salt-related practices were negatively associated with sodium intake and positively associated with body mass index (BMI) (p < 0.001 and p = 0.001, respectively), whereas salt-related knowledge was not associated with sodium intake, blood pressure, or BMI. Salt-related knowledge is limited and not linked to practices related to salt intake in Saudi adults. Interventions are needed to increase the accessibility of low-sodium food options and improve practices limiting sodium intake to prevent the occurrence of salt-related diseases among adults in Saudi Arabia.

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Evaluation of exposure to effervescent drugs in a large health check-up population in France: a cross-sectional study

BMJ Open ◽

10.1136/bmjopen-2018-022368 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 8 (7) ◽

pp. e022368 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Germain Perrin ◽

Sarah Berdot ◽

Frédérique Thomas ◽

Bruno Pannier ◽

Nicolas Danchin ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Sodium Intake ◽

Cross Sectional Study ◽

Sodium Content ◽

Health Check ◽

Dietary Sodium ◽

Sectional Study ◽

Self Medication ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

High Sodium ◽

Factors Associated

ObjectivesThe relationship between high dietary sodium intake and hypertension is well established. Some drugs are associated with high-sodium content, particularly effervescent tablets (ETs). Despite a possible cardiovascular risk associated with the use of such drugs, observational data describing exposure to ETs in ambulatory subjects are lacking.This study aims to estimate the prevalence of exposure to ETs and to highlight factors associated with this exposure in a large French health check-up population.DesignThis was a cross-sectional study.Setting and participantsParticipants were French individuals who underwent medical check-ups at the Investigations Préventives et Cliniques centre between April and June 2017.ResultsIn total, 1043 subjects were included in the study. The prevalence of exposure to ETs in the last 30 days was 26.9% (95% CI 24.2% to 29.6%). Exposure was frequent (ie, two ETs per week or more in the last 30 days) for 7.3% of subjects. Self-medication was the major source of exposure (93.8%). Paracetamol, aspirin, vitamins and betaine accounted for 95.3% of the ETs used. The factors associated with this exposure by multivariate analysis were: male gender, Overseas French origin, depression and body mass index ≥25 kg/m2. A diagnosis of hypertension or treatment with diuretics were not protective factors against exposure to ETs.ConclusionExposure to ETs is frequent in the general population, particularly through self-medication. Clinical conditions associated with low-salt requirements were not associated with lower exposure to ETs, suggesting a lack of awareness by practitioners and patients about this iatrogenic issue.

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Sodium and Potassium Intakes assessed by 24-h Urine among Moroccan University students in Casablanca, Morocco: Cross-Sectional Study

SHS Web of Conferences ◽

10.1051/shsconf/202111904003 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 119 ◽

pp. 04003

Author(s):

Maria Elarbaoui ◽

Ali Jafri ◽

Younes Elkardi ◽

Houria Makhlouki ◽

Basma Ellahi ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Salt Intake ◽

Action Plan ◽

Cross Sectional Study ◽

Dietary Sodium ◽

World Health ◽

Sectional Study ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Potassium Intake ◽

Urinary Potassium ◽

Sodium And Potassium

In Morocco, the high consumption of dietary sodium increases the risk of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and predisposes to cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) and hypertension. This study aims to assess the dietary sodium and potassium intake in a random sample of Moroccan adult students as a benchmark informing a national strategy for reducing salt intake. This cross-sectional study was conducted with 103 adults aged 18 to 25 years recruited in Casablanca. The 24-hour urinary excretion was used to measure the sodium and potassium. Creatinine excretion was used to validate the completeness of the urine collections. The average urinary sodium excretion was 3125.77 ± 121.99 mg/day, 13.5% consumed less than 5g/day, while 69% consumed more than 5 g/day of which 17.5% consumed more than twice the recommendations. For the average urinary potassium excretion was 1826.1 ± 61.2 mg/day, and more than 98% of the students consumed less than the adequate intake. The results of this pilot study show that the population studied has a high sodium intake and low potassium intake which does not meet World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations, which requires implementing an action plan to reduce salt.

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The relationship between habitual dietary sodium intake and RAAS blockade on circulating microparticle levels in type two diabetes

Clinical Science ◽

10.1042/cs20180472 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 132 (20) ◽

pp. 2207-2220 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Sara Baqar ◽

Dorothy Liu ◽

Lisa F. Lincz ◽

Yee Wen Kong ◽

George Jerums ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Endothelial Dysfunction ◽

Sodium Intake ◽

Annexin V ◽

Cross Sectional Study ◽

Dietary Sodium ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Raas Blockade ◽

Low Sodium ◽

Circulating Microparticles ◽

Type Two Diabetes

Objective: Low sodium intake is paradoxically associated with adverse cardiovascular outcomes in individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D), possibly from renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS) activation, leading to endothelial dysfunction. In the present study, we investigated the associations between habitual sodium intake and RAAS blockade on endothelial function by measuring circulating microparticles (MPs) in individuals with T2D. Methods: We conducted a prospective, cross-sectional study in 74 individuals with T2D. Habitual dietary sodium intake was estimated by using the mean of three corrected 24-h urine sodium excretion measurements (24hUNa). MP subtypes in platelet-free plasma were quantitated using flow cytometry. Results: No associations between 24hUNa with levels of endothelial MPs were observed. Instead, a trend toward higher diabetes related CD36+/CD235a+ MP levels was associated with lower 24hUNa (rho = −0.23, P=0.05). When stratified according to tertiles of 24hUNa, platelet-derived CD42b+/CD41+ and CD42+/CD41+/Annexin V+ MPs were higher in the lowest tertile (24hUNa < 157 mmol/24 h) (P=0.02 respectively). Despite RAAS blockade being associated with lower levels of most MP subsets, it was not associated with lower MPs, in the setting of low sodium intake. Conclusion: Lower sodium intake is associated with higher circulating procoagulant MPs, but not with evidence of endothelial dysfunction in individuals with T2D.

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