897Environmental contamination of Coxiella burnetii in and around an endemically infected goat farm

Abstract Background Coxiella burnetii is the cause of Q fever, a zoonotic disease spread by aerosol transmission. This study investigated C. burnetii environmental contamination in and around an endemically infected, intensively managed dairy goat farm in Victoria, Australia. Methods Dust, soil and water were collected in and around kidding pens. Samplings were collected before, during and after each kidding season. Soil was sampled along a 500 m transect from the main kidding pen in the predominant wind direction to assess the risk of C. burnetii spread from the main farm shed as a point source. DNA extraction and quantitative PCRs targeting the IS1111 and com1 genes were performed. Analyses are ongoing to describe the change in the frequency of C. burnetii positive environmental samples as a function of distance from the main farm shed. Results Dust inside the kidding pen contained C. burnetii DNA at all time points, with higher loads during the kidding seasons. Soil samples were positive for both PCR targets and were evenly dispersed within close ranges (500 m) from the main farm shed. Only those water samples taken from close to the main farm shed were positive. Conclusions C. burnetii was readily found in dust and soil in and around a farm shed where coxiellosis was endemic. Further environmental sampling will allow us to estimate the distance over which C. burnetii contamination occurs around a known point source. Key messages Results of this study will provide information critical for estimating Q fever risk around livestock facilities.

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The use of a geographic information system to identify a dairy goat farm as the most likely source of an urban Q-fever outbreak

BMC Infectious Diseases ◽

10.1186/1471-2334-10-69 ◽

2010 ◽

Vol 10 (1) ◽

Cited By ~ 110

Author(s):

Barbara Schimmer ◽

Ronald ter Schegget ◽

Marjolijn Wegdam ◽

Lothar Züchner ◽

Arnout de Bruin ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Information System ◽

Geographic Information System ◽

Q Fever ◽

Geographic Information ◽

Dairy Goat ◽

Goat Farm

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Peripartum dynamics of Coxiella burnetii infections in intensively managed dairy goats associated with a Q fever outbreak in Australia

Preventive Veterinary Medicine ◽

10.1016/j.prevetmed.2017.02.006 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 139 ◽

pp. 58-66 ◽

Cited By ~ 6

Author(s):

Michael Muleme ◽

John Stenos ◽

Gemma Vincent ◽

Colin R. Wilks ◽

Joanne M. Devlin ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Coxiella Burnetii ◽

Q Fever ◽

Dairy Goats ◽

Intensively Managed

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Coxiella burnetii Shedding Routes and Antibody Response after Outbreaks of Q Fever-Induced Abortion in Dairy Goat Herds

Applied and Environmental Microbiology ◽

10.1128/aem.00690-08 ◽

2008 ◽

Vol 75 (2) ◽

pp. 428-433 ◽

Cited By ~ 97

Author(s):

Elodie Rousset ◽

Mustapha Berri ◽

Benoit Durand ◽

Philippe Dufour ◽

Myriam Prigent ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Coxiella Burnetii ◽

Complement Fixation ◽

Q Fever ◽

Immunofluorescence Assay ◽

Dairy Goat ◽

Pcr Analysis ◽

Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay ◽

Potential Hazard ◽

Fecal Shedding ◽

The Relationship

ABSTRACT Q fever is a zoonosis caused by Coxiella burnetii, a bacterium largely carried by ruminants and shed into milk, vaginal mucus, and feces. The main potential hazard to humans and animals is due to shedding of bacteria that can then persist in the environment and be aerosolized. The purpose of this study was to evaluate shedding after an outbreak of Q fever abortion in goat herds and to assess the relationship with the occurrence of abortions and antibody responses. Aborting and nonaborting goats were monitored by PCR for C. burnetii shedding 15 and 30 days after the abortion episodes. PCR analysis of all samples showed that 70% (n = 50) of the aborting and 53% (n = 70) of the nonaborting goats were positive. C. burnetii was shed into vaginal mucus, feces, and milk of 44%, 21%, and 38%, respectively, of goats that aborted and 27%, 20%, and 31%, respectively, of goats that delivered normally. Statistical comparison of these shedding results did not reveal any difference between these two groups. PCR results obtained for the vaginal and fecal routes were concordant in 81% of cases, whereas those for milk correlated with only 49% of cases with either vaginal or fecal shedding status. Serological analysis, using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA), and complement fixation tests, showed that at least 24% of the seronegative goats shed bacteria. Positive vaginal and fecal shedding, unlike positive milk shedding, was observed more often in animals that were weakly positive or negative by ELISA or IFA. Two opposite shedding trends were thus apparent for the milk and vaginal-fecal routes. Moreover, this study showed that a nonnegligible proportion of seronegative animals that delivered normally could excrete C. burnetii.

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Q fever

Microbiology Australia ◽

10.1071/ma12170 ◽

2012 ◽

Vol 33 (4) ◽

pp. 170

Author(s):

Robert Norton

Keyword(s):

Coxiella Burnetii ◽

Q Fever ◽

Environmental Sampling ◽

High Likelihood ◽

Obligate Intracellular Bacterium ◽

Wet Season ◽

Obligate Intracellular ◽

Chronic Q Fever ◽

Specific Symptoms ◽

Occupational Contact

Q fever is a zoonosis caused by the obligate intracellular bacterium Coxiella burnetii. North Queensland has some of the highest rates of Q fever notifications in Australia. The clinical diagnosis of Q fever can be difficult with non-specific symptoms. Up to 5% of cases will develop chronic Q fever with a high likelihood of endocarditis. Diagnosis is essentially by serology. In North Queensland cases have clustered in relatively new, semi-rural suburbs which lie adjacent to native bushland. Native mammals are attracted to new growth in these cleared areas, particularly after the wet season. There is little or no occupational contact with traditional sources of Q fever such as cattle. Seroprevalence studies on native mammals have shown higher levels of seropositivity in native mammals than in cattle. It is postulated that the increase in human cases seen from these areas are a direct effect of interaction between native mammals and humans. Further studies on environmental sampling is currently under way.

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In search of hidden Q-fever outbreaks: linking syndromic hospital clusters to infected goat farms

Epidemiology and Infection ◽

10.1017/s0950268810001032 ◽

2010 ◽

Vol 139 (1) ◽

pp. 19-26 ◽

Cited By ~ 19

Author(s):

C. C. VAN DEN WIJNGAARD ◽

F. DIJKSTRA ◽

W. VAN PELT ◽

L. VAN ASTEN ◽

M. KRETZSCHMAR ◽

...

Keyword(s):

The Netherlands ◽

Real Time ◽

Syndromic Surveillance ◽

Q Fever ◽

Respiratory Infections ◽

The Other ◽

Scan Statistics ◽

Dairy Goat ◽

Infected Goat ◽

Time Scan

SUMMARYLarge Q-fever outbreaks were reported in The Netherlands from May 2007 to 2009, with dairy-goat farms as the putative source. Since Q-fever outbreaks at such farms were first reported in 2005, we explored whether there was evidence of human outbreaks before May 2007. Space–time scan statistics were used to look for clusters of lower-respiratory infections (LRIs), hepatitis, and/or endocarditis in hospitalizations, 2005–2007. We assessed whether these were plausibly caused by Q fever, using patients' age, discharge diagnoses, indications for other causes, and overlap with reported Q fever in goats/humans. For seven detected LRI clusters and one hepatitis cluster, we considered Q fever a plausible cause. One of these clusters reflected the recognized May 2007 outbreak. Real-time syndromic surveillance would have detected four of the other clusters in 2007, one in 2006 and two in 2005, which might have resulted in detection of Q-fever outbreaks up to 2 years earlier.

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Detection of Coxiella burnetii DNA on Small-Ruminant Farms during a Q Fever Outbreak in the Netherlands

Applied and Environmental Microbiology ◽

10.1128/aem.07323-11 ◽

2012 ◽

Vol 78 (6) ◽

pp. 1652-1657 ◽

Cited By ~ 43

Author(s):

A. de Bruin ◽

R. Q. J. van der Plaats ◽

L. de Heer ◽

R. Paauwe ◽

B. Schimmer ◽

...

Keyword(s):

The Netherlands ◽

Surface Area ◽

Coxiella Burnetii ◽

Q Fever ◽

Monitoring Program ◽

Primary Source ◽

Dairy Goat ◽

Environmental Matrices ◽

Content Type ◽

Bulk Milk

ABSTRACTDuring large Q fever outbreaks in the Netherlands between 2007 and 2010, dairy goat farms were implicated as the primary source of human Q fever. The transmission ofCoxiella burnetiito humans is thought to occur primarily via aerosols, although available data onC. burnetiiin aerosols and other environmental matrices are limited. During the outbreak of 2009, 19 dairy goat farms and one dairy sheep farm were selected nationwide to investigate the presence ofC. burnetiiDNA in vaginal swabs, manure, surface area swabs, milk unit filters, and aerosols. Four of these farms had a positive status during theCoxiella burnetiibulk milk monitoring program in 2009 and additionally reported abortion waves in 2008 or 2009. Eleven farms were reported as having positive bulk milk only, and five selected (control) farms had a bulk milk-negative status in 2009 and no reported Q fever history. Screening by quantitative PCR (qPCR) revealed that on farms with a history of abortions related toC. burnetiiand, to a lesser extent, on farms positive by bulk milk monitoring, generally higher proportions of positive samples and higher levels ofC. burnetiiDNA within positive samples were observed than on the control farms. The relatively high levels ofC. burnetiiDNA in surface area swabs and aerosols sampled in stables of bulk milk-positive farms, including farms with a Q fever-related abortion history, support the hypothesis that these farms can pose a risk for the transmission ofC. burnetiito humans.

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890The prevalence and risk factors for Coxiella burnetii on commercial dairy goat farms in Australia

International Journal of Epidemiology ◽

10.1093/ije/dyab168.289 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 50 (Supplement_1) ◽

Author(s):

Kangwei Hou ◽

Simon Firestone ◽

Anke Wiethoelter ◽

John Stenos ◽

Louis Lignereux ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Risk Factors ◽

Coxiella Burnetii ◽

Q Fever ◽

Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction ◽

Dairy Goat ◽

Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay ◽

Rt Pcr ◽

Dairy Goats ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Pcr Targeting

Abstract Background Despite the potentially important role that intensively managed dairy goats play in the spread of Q fever, the prevalence of Coxiella burnetii among dairy goat herds in Australia is largely unknown. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to estimate the prevalence of coxiellosis-positive dairy goat herds in Australia and to identify risk factors associated with coxiellosis positivity. Methods Owners or managers of commercial dairy goat herds were contacted and asked to complete a questionnaire about risk factors for coxiellosis and to provide a bulk tank milk (BTM) sample. BTM samples were tested using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) targeting the Com1 and IS1111 sections of the C. burnetii genome. Questionnaire responses from coxiellosis positive and coxiellosis negative herds were compared using frequency cross-tabulations and multivariable logistic regression. Results Herd managers from 49 of the 61 commercial dairy goat herds in Australia took part in the study. Of this group, three BTM samples were found to be both ELISA and RT-PCR positive. Two BTM samples were ELISA positive but RT-PCR negative. There were 10 (95% CI 4.4 to 22) C. burnetii positive herds per 100 herds at risk. Conclusions The prevalence of coxiellosis among commercial dairy goat farms in Australia is relatively low. Key messages The Australian dairy goat industry should focus on biosecurity measures and risk management plans to reduce the probability of C. burnetii introduction.

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A Q Fever Outbreak with a High Rate of Abortions at a Dairy Goat Farm:Coxiella burnetiiShedding, Environmental Contamination, and Viability

Applied and Environmental Microbiology ◽

10.1128/aem.01650-18 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 84 (20) ◽

Cited By ~ 9

Author(s):

Raquel Álvarez-Alonso ◽

Mikel Basterretxea ◽

Jesús F. Barandika ◽

Ana Hurtado ◽

Jasone Idiazabal ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Coxiella Burnetii ◽

Environmental Contamination ◽

Q Fever ◽

Vero Cells ◽

Control Measures ◽

High Rate ◽

Dairy Goat ◽

Content Type ◽

Infection Dynamics ◽

Low Incidence

ABSTRACTThis study describes a Q fever outbreak in a herd of 77 Alpine goats which suffered a high rate of abortions (81% [58/72]) in January 2017 and presents the results of monitoring the contamination and viability ofCoxiella burnetiiin the farm environment several months after the outbreak. Over the course of 7 months, we studied bacterial shedding by 35 dams with abortions to monitorC. burnetiiinfection dynamics and the duration of excretion. The highest bacterial shedding load was observed in vaginal mucus, followed by in feces and in milk. Conversely, the duration ofC. burnetiishedding was longer through feces (5 months after abortion) than milk (3 months).C. burnetiiDNA was detected throughout the study in aerosol samples periodically collected indoors and outdoors from the animal premises. Mouse inoculation and culture in Vero cells demonstrated the presence of viable isolates in dust collected from different surfaces inside the animal facilities during the period of time with the highest number of abortions but not in dust collected 2, 3, and 4 months after the last parturition. Some workers and visitors were affected by Q fever, with attack rates of 78% (7/9) and 31% (4/13), respectively. Affected people mostly showed fever and seroconversion, along with myalgia and arthralgia in two patients and pneumonia in the index case. The genotype identified in animal and environmental samples (SNP1/MST13) turned out to be very aggressive in goats but caused only moderate symptoms in people. After the diagnosis of abortion by Q fever in goats, several control measures were implemented at the farm to prevent contamination inside and outside the animal facilities.IMPORTANCEThis work describes a 7-month follow-up of the excretion by different routes ofCoxiella burnetiigenotype SNP1/MST13 in a herd of goats that suffered high rate of abortions (81%), generating high environmental contamination. Some of the workers and visitors who accessed the farm were infected, with fever as the main symptom but a low incidence of pneumonia. The detected strain (SNP1/MST13 genotype) turned out to be very aggressive in goats. The viability ofC. burnetiiwas demonstrated in the environment of the farm at the time of abortions, but 2 months after the last parturition, no viable bacteria were detected. These results highlighted the importance of implementing good biosafety measures at farms and avoiding the entrance of visitors to farms several months after the end of the kidding period.

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