PSII-22 Trends in Mycotoxin Contamination in United States Corn

Abstract Mycotoxins are harmful secondary fungal metabolites and are of key concern to food and feed safety globally. These toxins are detrimental to animal health and can compromise animal performance even at low levels. Classic signs such as decreased feed intake and vomiting used as indicators for exposure overlook other costs of mycotoxicosis, including increasing the frequency and severity of disease via immune suppression, inciting inflammation, and modulating the gastrointestinal environment. This survey examines initial samples of the 2019 crop with previous year trends. New crop corn samples were submitted from September 2019 and consisted of corn (46%), corn silage (50%), and corn byproduct (4%). Samples were analyzed utilizing the liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method for six major mycotoxin groups: aflatoxins (Afla), type A trichothecenes (A-Trich), type B trichothecenes (B-Trich), fumonisins (FUM), zearalenone (ZEN), and ochratoxin-A (OTA). Data are presented for major mycotoxin classes in Table 1. Fewer samples are available thus far compared to the fall of 2018 (50 samples in 2019 vs. 135 samples in 2018), thus risk profile of this crop year is likely to change as the sample pool expands. Co-occurrence (≥ 2 mycotoxins) has decreased compared to 2018. The prevalence of B-Trich decreased compared with previous years, but levels are similar to 2018. Prevalence and levels of ZEN decreased from 2018, and are similar to 2017, while FUM is similar in prevalence to 2018, but average ppb numerically increased. As of yet, no Alfa has been detected; however, corn stored with higher moisture content has increased the risk for storage toxins. Mycotoxin risk of this harvest season is still coming into focus as harvest delays have affected sample submission. Due to continued risk of multi-mycotoxin contamination, multiple mitigation strategies are needed beyond just adsorption, including biotransformation, support of the immune system and liver function.

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170 Trends in mycotoxin contamination in the united states corn

Journal of Animal Science ◽

10.1093/jas/skz122.169 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 97 (Supplement_2) ◽

pp. 93-94 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Shelby Curry ◽

Erika G Hendel ◽

Paige Gott ◽

G R Murugesan ◽

Ursula Hofstetter-Schähs

Keyword(s):

Animal Health ◽

The United States ◽

Fungal Species ◽

Mitigation Strategies ◽

Fungal Metabolites ◽

Mycotoxin Contamination ◽

Increased Risk ◽

Food And Feed ◽

Type A Trichothecenes ◽

Feed Safety

Abstract Mycotoxins are harmful secondary fungal metabolites and are of key concern to food and feed safety globally. In addition to compromised performance, mycotoxins negatively impact animal health. Although classic signs such as decreased feed intake and vomiting are known in the field as indicators for exposure, mycotoxins act as predisposing factors for diseases by immune suppression, causing inflammation, and modulating the gastrointestinal environment, even at low levels. This survey presents mycotoxin levels of corn samples from the 2018 harvest and compares these levels with those in previous years. New crop corn samples from various sources, were submitted starting from mid-August 2018, and consisted of corn (70%), corn silage (18%), and corn byproduct (12%). Samples were analyzed utilizing the liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method for six major mycotoxin groups: aflatoxins (Afla), type A trichothecenes (A-Trich), type B trichothecenes (B-Trich), fumonisins (FUM), zearalenone (ZEN), and ochratoxin-A (OTA). Data are presented for major mycotoxin classes in Table 1. The majority of samples contained at least 1 detectable mycotoxin with co-occurrence (≥ 2 mycotoxins) similar to 2017, and less than 2016. Prevalence of B-Trich has decreased compared with previous years, but average ppb is similar to 2017. Prevalence and average ppb of ZEN are similar to 2017, while FUM has increased in both prevalence and average ppb. Alfa prevalence has increased and average ppb is numerically higher than the previous two years. The preliminary results from the 2018 corn harvest suggest a continued risk from mycotoxins produced by Fusarium fungal species, and a potential increased risk of Afla compared to previous years. Because of the risk of multi-mycotoxin contamination in corn samples thus far, multiple mitigation strategies are needed beyond just adsorption, including biotransformation support of the immune system and liver function.

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67 Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Forage-Based Feeds from US and Canada

Journal of Animal Science ◽

10.1093/jas/skaa278.064 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 98 (Supplement_4) ◽

pp. 35-36

Author(s):

Paige N Gott ◽

Erin F Schwandt ◽

Shelby M Ramirez ◽

Erika G Hendel ◽

G Raj Murugesan ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Limit Of Detection ◽

Animal Health ◽

Current Data ◽

Corn Silage ◽

Fungal Metabolites ◽

Data Set ◽

The Us ◽

Survey Results ◽

Type A Trichothecenes ◽

Contamination Levels

Abstract Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites that contaminate a variety of feedstuffs and are detrimental to animal health and productivity. The risk of broad-spectrum mycotoxin exposure is elevated for ruminants due to the complexity of their diets. This study investigated the occurrence and contamination levels of mycotoxins in forage-based feeds including corn silage, haylage (including various cuttings of multiple forage sources), and straw samples from across the US and Canada. Samples were screened for the six major mycotoxin groups: aflatoxins, type A trichothecenes, type B trichothecenes (B-Trich), fumonisins (FUM), zearalenone (ZEN), and ochratoxin A via LC-MS/MS technique. Samples submitted for clinical health or performance concerns were excluded from the data set. The B-Trich occurred most frequently (95% positive) among 92 corn silage samples harvested in 2019 followed by ZEN (34%) and FUM (9%). Mean contamination levels (parts per billion, ppb) on dry matter basis were 2,788 ppb, 456 ppb, and 194 ppb, respectively. Only 4% of silage samples were below the limit of detection (LOD) for all mycotoxins evaluated. Among 20 haylage samples from 2019 crop year, B-Trich were the most frequently detected, with 50% of samples positive at a mean concentration of 3,222 ppb. Twenty-one 2019 straw samples were submitted for analysis, with 100% testing positive for some level of B-Trich (mean 2,001 ppb) and 81% ZEN positive with an average of 640 ppb. Seventy-one percent of straw samples were positive for both B-Trich and ZEN. Preliminary mycotoxin survey results from US and Canada suggest B-Trich and ZEN are the most frequently occurring major mycotoxins in 2019 forage-based feed samples. Based on the frequency and levels of mycotoxin contamination identified in the current data set, continued analysis of forage-based feeds is warranted as mycotoxins pose a potential risk to the health, performance, and reproductive success of ruminants.

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Co-Occurrence of Regulated and Emerging Mycotoxins in Corn Silage: Relationships with Fermentation Quality and Bacterial Communities

Toxins ◽

10.3390/toxins13030232 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 13 (3) ◽

pp. 232

Author(s):

Antonio Gallo ◽

Francesca Ghilardelli ◽

Alberto Stanislao Atzori ◽

Severino Zara ◽

Barbara Novak ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Bacterial Community ◽

Bacterial Communities ◽

Dry Matter ◽

Kojic Acid ◽

Corn Silage ◽

Fungal Metabolites ◽

Fusarium Mycotoxins ◽

Low Concentrations ◽

Fermentation Quality ◽

Low Levels

Sixty-four corn silages were characterized for chemicals, bacterial community, and concentrations of several fungal metabolites. Silages were grouped in five clusters, based on detected mycotoxins, and they were characterized for being contaminated by (1) low levels of Aspergillus- and Penicillium-mycotoxins; (2) low levels of fumonisins and other Fusarium-mycotoxins; (3) high levels of Aspergillus-mycotoxins; (4) high levels of non-regulated Fusarium-mycotoxins; (5) high levels of fumonisins and their metabolites. Altersetin was detected in clusters 1, 3, and 5. Rugulusovin or brevianamide F were detected in several samples, with the highest concentration in cluster 3. Emodin was detected in more than 50.0% of samples of clusters 1, 3 and 5, respectively. Kojic acid occurred mainly in clusters 1 and 2 at very low concentrations. Regarding Fusarium mycotoxins, high occurrences were observed for FB3, FB4, FA1, whereas the average concentrations of FB6 and FA2 were lower than 12.4 µg/kg dry matter. Emerging Fusarium-produced mycotoxins, such as siccanol, moniliformin, equisetin, epiequisetin and bikaverin were detected in the majority of analyzed corn silages. Pestalotin, oxaline, phenopirrozin and questiomycin A were detected at high incidences. Concluding, this work highlighted that corn silages could be contaminated by a high number of regulated and emerging mycotoxins.

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Occurrence, Impact on Agriculture, Human Health, and Management Strategies of Zearalenone in Food and Feed: A Review

Toxins ◽

10.3390/toxins13020092 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 13 (2) ◽

pp. 92

Author(s):

Dipendra Kumar Mahato ◽

Sheetal Devi ◽

Shikha Pandhi ◽

Bharti Sharma ◽

Kamlesh Kumar Maurya ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Human Health ◽

Control Strategies ◽

Management Strategies ◽

Structural Similarity ◽

Fungal Metabolites ◽

Natural Estrogens ◽

Food And Feed ◽

Feed Safety ◽

And Control ◽

Different Sources

Mycotoxins represent an assorted range of secondary fungal metabolites that extensively occur in numerous food and feed ingredients at any stage during pre- and post-harvest conditions. Zearalenone (ZEN), a mycotoxin categorized as a xenoestrogen poses structural similarity with natural estrogens that enables its binding to the estrogen receptors leading to hormonal misbalance and numerous reproductive diseases. ZEN is mainly found in crops belonging to temperate regions, primarily in maize and other cereal crops that form an important part of various food and feed. Because of the significant adverse effects of ZEN on both human and animal, there is an alarming need for effective detection, mitigation, and management strategies to assure food and feed safety and security. The present review tends to provide an updated overview of the different sources, occurrence and biosynthetic mechanisms of ZEN in various food and feed. It also provides insight to its harmful effects on human health and agriculture along with its effective detection, management, and control strategies.

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An In Silico Target Fishing Approach to Identify Novel Ochratoxin A Hydrolyzing Enzyme

Toxins ◽

10.3390/toxins12040258 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 12 (4) ◽

pp. 258 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Luca Dellafiora ◽

Christoph Gonaus ◽

Barbara Streit ◽

Gianni Galaverna ◽

Wulf-Dieter Moll ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Ochratoxin A ◽

In Silico ◽

Fungal Species ◽

Mitigation Strategies ◽

Carboxypeptidase B ◽

Enzymatic Assays ◽

Food And Feed ◽

Hydrolyzing Enzymes ◽

Feed Safety

Ochratoxin A (OTA), a mycotoxin that is of utmost concern in food and feed safety, is produced by fungal species that mainly belong to the Aspergillus and Penicillium genera. The development of mitigation strategies to reduce OTA content along the supply chains is key to ensuring safer production of food and feed. Enzyme-based strategies are among the most promising methods due to their specificity, efficacy, and multi-situ applicability. In particular, some enzymes are already known for hydrolyzing OTA into ochratoxin alpha (OTα) and phenylalanine (Phe), eventually resulting in detoxification action. Therefore, the discovery of novel OTA hydrolyzing enzymes, along with the advancement of an innovative approach for their identification, could provide a broader basis to develop more effective mitigating strategies in the future. In the present study, a hybrid in silico/in vitro workflow coupling virtual screening with enzymatic assays was applied in order to identify novel OTA hydrolyzing enzymes. Among the various hits, porcine carboxypeptidase B was identified for the first time as an effective OTA hydrolyzing enzyme. The successful experimental endorsement of findings of the workflow confirms that the presented strategy is suitable for identifying novel OTA hydrolyzing enzymes, and it might be relevant for the discovery of other mycotoxin- mitigating enzymes.

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Comparison of monoclonal antibody performance characteristics for the detection of two representatives of A- and B-trichothecenes: T-2 toxin and deoxynivalenol

World Mycotoxin Journal ◽

10.3920/wmj2010.1224 ◽

2010 ◽

Vol 3 (3) ◽

pp. 233-238 ◽

Cited By ~ 12

Author(s):

S. Baumgartner ◽

M. Führer ◽

R. Krska

Keyword(s):

Monoclonal Antibody ◽

Monoclonal Antibodies ◽

Animal Health ◽

Type B ◽

Fusarium Spp ◽

Food And Feed ◽

Type A Trichothecenes ◽

Line Selection ◽

Immunological Test ◽

Cell Line Selection

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi belonging mainly to the Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium genera. They represent a relevant source of danger to human and animal health causing food- and feedborne intoxication. One group, produced by Fusarium spp., are the trichothecenes, of which T-2 toxin belongs to the type-A trichothecenes and deoxynivalenol to the type-B trichothecenes. As these mycotoxins are ubiquitous, the testing of products is required to keep our food and feed safe. For this purpose, sensitive and reliable tests are needed to detect contaminations. One detection possibility is an immunoanalytical based test which needs antibodies as reagents. Cell culture facilities allow cell line selection and production of monoclonal antibodies for further immunological test development. Especially for mycotoxins antibody development for further use in immunoassays is a crucial task. T-2 toxin and deoxynivalenol specific monoclonal antibodies were developed and further characterised to test stability and solvent resistance properties. Especially cross-reactivities were determined to related mycotoxins also belonging to the trichothecene family, e.g. HT-2 toxin or 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol.

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60 Occurrence of Mycotoxins in 2019 US Corn-based Feed Ingredients

Journal of Animal Science ◽

10.1093/jas/skaa278.065 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 98 (Supplement_4) ◽

pp. 36-37

Author(s):

Erin F Schwandt ◽

Paige N Gott ◽

Erika G Hendel ◽

Shelby M Ramirez ◽

G Raj Murugesan ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Animal Health ◽

Fungal Metabolites ◽

Negative Effects ◽

Sample Mean ◽

Feed Ingredients ◽

Type A Trichothecenes ◽

Contamination Levels ◽

La Jolla ◽

Gluten Feed ◽

Corn Grain

Abstract Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites that are detrimental to animal health and productivity. This study investigated occurrence and contamination levels of mycotoxins in the 2019 US corn harvest, including corn grain and corn byproduct feed ingredients (distillers dried grains, gluten feed, etc.). Corn samples from the 2019 harvest and corn DDGS and other byproducts from October 2019 through April 2020 were screened via the LC-MS/MS technique for the presence of six major mycotoxin groups: aflatoxins, type A trichothecenes, type B trichothecenes (B-Trich), fumonisins (FUM), zearalenone (ZEN) and ochratoxin A. Parameters of the main toxins found were compared to the two prior harvest years using the Kruskal-Wallis Test (Prism7, GraphPad, La Jolla, CA) and are presented in Table 1. Mean toxin count per sample in corn grain was similar in 2019 as 2018, with just over two toxins per sample. Mean B-Trich level (parts per billion, ppb) was elevated in 2019 from 2017. Fumonisin contamination increased in 2019 compared to 2017, and prevalence was similar to 2018. Zearalenone contamination and prevalence were similar in 2019 compared to 2018 levels. Co-contamination in corn byproduct feeds was steady, averaging nearly three toxins per sample. Mean B-Trich contamination was higher than the 2017 crop, and FUM contamination was higher in 2019 than 2017 and 2018. Zearalenone levels in 2019 byproducts are the highest seen in the past three years. Preliminary results of the 2019 corn-based feed ingredients survey suggest mycotoxin occurrence and contamination levels are approaching those observed in the challenging 2018 crop. Furthermore, there are continued concerns for co-contamination and greater ZEN contamination that may impose negative effects on growth, health and reproductive performance in ruminants.

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Fungal Contamination and Aflatoxin B1 Detected in Hay for Dairy Cows in South Italy

Frontiers in Nutrition ◽

10.3389/fnut.2021.704976 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 8 ◽

Author(s):

Carlotta Ceniti ◽

Nicola Costanzo ◽

Anna Antonella Spina ◽

Marinella Rodolfi ◽

Bruno Tilocca ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Dairy Cows ◽

Animal Health ◽

Fungal Species ◽

Matter Content ◽

Economic Losses ◽

Dry Matter Content ◽

Mycotoxin Contamination ◽

South Italy ◽

Food And Feed ◽

Fungal Deterioration

The growth of filamentous fungi on fodder is recognized as responsible for fungal deterioration and mycotoxin contamination of the plant mass leads to economic losses in the dairy cow production system. Mycotoxin contamination has significant implications for human and animal health and is one of the major concerns in the food and feed chain. This research provides an insight into the variety of viable molds (i.e., filamentous microfungi) that can be isolated from hay produced in South Italy and destined to dairy cows. On different lots of hay (n = 55) collected from 20 dairy farms, a total of 33 different fungal species were identified. The most representative was Cladosporium cladosporioides (n = 46, 84%) followed by Alternaria alternata (n = 25, 45%), and Rhizopus stolonifer (n = 24, 44%). The species most closely related to aflatoxin (AF) contamination, Aspergillus flavus, was often isolated (n = 11, 20%). Regarding AF detection, all the hay samples were found to be scarcely contaminated by AFB1 and showed values from 0.0020 to 0.0077 mg/kg, below the limits established by European Union (EU legislation) (0.02 mg/kg). None of the samples were positive for Aspergillia and tested for AFB1 showed results exceeding established limits. Additionally, hay with moisture between 15.0 and 19.2% or crude ash on dry matter content ranging from 14.0 to 15.5% reported an increased presence of AFB1 (p < 0.05) compared to the other samples. All the analyzed hay samples, besides the presence of molds, can be considered safe for the presence of AFB1. Prevention of mold spoilage is mandatory to reduce the exposure of humans and animals to mycotoxins.

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136 Mycotoxin Contamination in United States Corn and Corn DDGS from 2019 and 2020 Harvest

Journal of Animal Science ◽

10.1093/jas/skab054.121 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 99 (Supplement_1) ◽

pp. 73-74

Author(s):

Lan Zheng ◽

Chasity Pender ◽

Paige N Gott ◽

Erin F Schwandt ◽

Shelby M Ramirez ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Disease Incidence ◽

Animal Health ◽

Clinical Signs ◽

Mitigation Strategies ◽

Experimental Unit ◽

Contamination Level ◽

Mycotoxin Contamination ◽

Contamination Levels ◽

Harvest Year ◽

Corn Ddgs

Abstract Mycotoxins are harmful secondary fungal metabolites central to food and feed safety management. These toxins are detrimental to animal health and even at low levels can compromise performance. Focus on clinical signs like decreased feed intake and vomiting overlook significant impacts of mycotoxicosis, including increased disease incidence and severity, immune dysfunction, inflammation, and modulation of the gastrointestinal environment. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of harvest year on five major mycotoxin groups: aflatoxins (Afla), type A trichothecenes (A-Trich), type B trichothecenes (B-Trich), fumonisins (FUM), and zearalenone (ZEN) in corn and corn DDGS samples. For each mycotoxin group within ingredient, 2019 harvest (329 corn and 20 corn DDGS) were compared with 2020 harvest (27 corn and 21 corn DDGS). Data were analyzed using GLIMMIX procedure of SAS with harvest year as fixed effect and sample as the experimental unit. Average B-Trich and FUM contamination levels in corn are significantly (P < 0.05) affected by harvest year. However, B-Trich levels remained consistent, whereas FUM decreased (P < 0.05) from 2019 to 2020. Contamination levels in corn for Afla, A-Trich, and ZEN have remained consistent (P > 0.05) from 2019 to 2020. In corn DDGS, B-Trich contamination level was decreased (P < 0.05) from 2019 to 2020, whereas FUM and ZEN contamination levels remained similar (P > 0.05). The 2020 crop risk profile is likely to change as the sample pool expands. A combination of hot weather, storm events, and drought during the 2020 growing season resulted in crop stress and damage, ultimately leading to grain quality and mycotoxin contamination concerns. Due to the continued risk of mycotoxin co-occurrence, expanding mitigation strategies beyond adsorption by mycotoxin deactivation with biotransformation and additional support of immune and liver function is essential.

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