The locomotor system

2013 ◽  
Author(s):  
Martin E. Atkinson
Keyword(s):  
Vertebral Column ◽  
Cervical Vertebrae ◽  
Lumbar Vertebrae ◽  
Posterior Wall ◽  
Axial Skeleton ◽  
Intervertebral Discs ◽  
Central Canal ◽  
The Body ◽  
Thoracic Vertebrae ◽  
Locomotor System

The locomotor system comprises the skeleton, composed principally of bone and cartilage, the joints between them, and the muscles which move bones at joints. The skeleton forms a supporting framework for the body and provides the levers to which the muscles are attached to produce movement of parts of the body in relation to each other or movement of the body as a whole in relation to its environment. The skeleton also plays a crucial role in the protection of internal organs. The skeleton is shown in outline in Figure 2.1A. The skull, vertebral column, and ribs together constitute the axial skeleton. This forms, as its name implies, the axis of the body. The skull houses and protects the brain and the eyes and ears; the anatomy of the skull is absolutely fundamental to the understanding of the structure of the head and is covered in detail in Section 4. The vertebral column surrounds and protects the spinal cord which is enclosed in the spinal canal formed by a large central canal in each vertebra. The vertebral column is formed from 33 individual bones although some of these become fused together. The vertebral column and its component bones are shown from the side in Figure 2.1B. There are seven cervical vertebrae in the neck, twelve thoracic vertebrae in the posterior wall of the thorax, five lumbar vertebrae in the small of the back, five fused sacral vertebrae in the pelvis, and four coccygeal vertebrae—the vestigial remnants of a tail. Intervertebral discs separate individual vertebrae from each other and act as a cushion between the adjacent bones; the discs are absent from the fused sacral vertebrae. The cervical vertebrae are small and very mobile, allowing an extensive range of neck movements and hence changes in head position. The first two cervical vertebrae, the atlas and axis, have unusual shapes and specialized joints that allow nodding and shaking movements of the head on the neck. The thoracic vertebrae are relatively immobile. combination of thoracic vertebral column, ribs, and sternum form the thoracic cage that protects the thoracic organs, the heart, and lungs and is intimately involved in ventilation (breathing).

The face and superficial neck

2013 ◽  
Author(s):  
Martin E. Atkinson
Keyword(s):  
Vertebral Column ◽  
Cervical Vertebrae ◽  
Small Body ◽  
Spinous Process ◽  
Odontoid Process ◽  
Cervical Vertebra ◽  
Intervertebral Discs ◽  
The Body ◽  
Thoracic Vertebrae ◽  
The Face

The surface anatomies of the face and neck and their supporting structures that can be palpated have been described in Chapter 20. It is now time to move to the structures that lie under the skin but which cannot be identified by touch starting with the neck and moving up on to the face and scalp. The cervical vertebral column comprises the seven cervical vertebrae and the intervening intervertebral discs. These have the same basic structure as the thoracic vertebrae described in Section 10.1.1. Examine the features of the cervical vertebra shown in Figure 23.1 and compare it with the thoracic vertebra shown in Figure 10.3. You will see that cervical vertebrae have a small body and a large vertebral foramen. They also have two distinguishing features, a bifid spinous process and a transverse foramen, piercing each transverse process; the vertebral vessels travel through these foramina. The first and second vertebrae are modified. The first vertebra, the atlas, has no body. Instead, it has two lateral masses connected by anterior and posterior arches. The lateral masses have concave superior facets which articulate with the occipital condyles where nodding movements of the head take place at the atlanto-occipital joints. The second cervical vertebra, the axis, has a strong odontoid process (or dens because of its supposed resemblance to a tooth) projecting upwards from its body. This process is, in fact, the body of the first vertebra which has fused with the body of the axis instead of being incorporated into the atlas. The front of the dens articulates with the back of the anterior arch of the atlas; rotary (shaking) movements of the head occur at this joint. The seventh cervical vertebra has a very long spinous process which is easily palpable. The primary curvature of the vertebral column is concave forwards and this persists in the thoracic and pelvic regions. In contrast, the cervical and lumbar parts of the vertebral column are convexly curved anteriorly. These anterior curvatures are secondary curvatures which appear in late fetal life. The cervical curvature becomes accentuated in early childhood as the child begins to support its own head and the lumbar curve develops as the child begins to sit up.

scholarly journals An Anatomical and Radiographic Study on the Vertebral Column of the Two-Toed Sloth (Choloepus hoffmanni)

2021 ◽  
Vol 39 (2) ◽  
pp. 1-18
Author(s):  
Maripaz Chinchilla-Barboza ◽  
Siam Chiquillo-Vergara ◽  
Valeria Delgado-Álvarez ◽  
Susan Gutiérrez-Gutiérrez ◽  
Johnny Steven Mora-Aleman ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Vertebral Column ◽  
Cervical Vertebrae ◽  
Lumbar Vertebrae ◽  
Axial Skeleton ◽  
Variable Number ◽  
Medical Attention ◽  
Thoracic Vertebrae ◽  
Radiographic Study ◽  
Proper Understanding ◽  
Caudal Vertebrae

The Choloepus Hoffmani is a mammal belonging to the Xenarthra superorder; xenarthrans are distributed from North to South America. It is common for these animals to require medical attention at wildlife rescue centers after being attacked by domestic animals or run over by cars. A proper understanding of this species’ anatomy is vital in order to be able to offer them a proper level of clinical attention. This publication aims to describe the spine’s anatomical and radiographic characteristics of the Choloepus Hoffmani. Four individuals were used in this research; the spine bones were cleaned by boiling and maceration. In the results, it was possible to observe how the postcranial axial skeleton in the sloths is made up by five of distinctive vertebra types. In the spine were found: six cervical vertebrae, a variable number of thoracic vertebrae, xenarthrous lumbar vertebrae, and a fusion between the sacrum and coxal bone. Finally, four underdeveloped caudal vertebrae were also identified in a small stump-like tail. Radiographically, no pathologies were observed in the alignment or structure of the spine. In conclusion, the present study described both the osteology alongside the anatomical radiography of the vertebral column of the Choloepus hoffmani, highlighting the particularities that are not found in domestic mammals and other members of the Xenarthra superorder. Information of this kind is relevant for forensic wildlife analysis, alongside aiding the treatment of animals in this species who suffered lesions in their spine.

scholarly journals Anatomo-radiographic description of the axial skeleton of the crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous)

2012 ◽  
Vol 32 (suppl 1) ◽  
pp. 01-03 ◽  
Author(s):  
Janaína D. Barisson ◽  
Cristiane H. Louro ◽  
Sheila J.T. Dias ◽  
Flávio S. Jojima ◽  
Murilo S. Ferreira ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Cervical Vertebrae ◽  
Spinous Process ◽  
Lumbar Vertebrae ◽  
Axial Skeleton ◽  
The Other ◽  
Domestic Dog ◽  
Thoracic Vertebrae ◽  
The Third ◽  
Caudal Vertebrae ◽  
Cerdocyon Thous

The aim of this study was to describe the axial skeleton of a wild Brazilian carnivorous, the crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous). Five specimens of crab-eating fox were previously unfrozen for radiographic exams and their bones went through dissection and chemical maceration. This animal presents seven cervical vertebrae, and from the third on, they become shorter and wider than the other ones e the spinous process was makeable from the fifth cervical vertebrae on. There are thirteen thoracic vertebrae and the spinous process of the lumbar vertebrae, which are seven, decreases from the fifth on. The sacrum is formed by two vertebrae and there are twenty or twenty one caudal vertebrae. It can be concluded that the crab-eating fox axial skeleton is similar to that of the domestic dog.

Gross Morphological Studies on the Vertebral Column of Indian Eagle Owl (Bubo bengalensis)

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
P. Sridevi ◽  
K. Rajalakshmi ◽  
M. Sivakumar ◽  
A. Karthikeyan
Keyword(s):  
Vertebral Column ◽  
Cervical Vertebrae ◽  
Lumbar Vertebrae ◽  
Cervical Vertebra ◽  
Neural Spine ◽  
Thoracic Vertebrae ◽  
Post Mortem ◽  
Post Mortem Examination ◽  
Morphological Studies ◽  
Eagle Owl

Background: Indian eagle owl known to rotate their necks up to 270 degrees in either direction without injuring their vessels running below the head thereby without cutting off blood supply to their brains. The vertebral column in birds carry peculiar features like higher number of cervical vertebrae due to long mobile neck, lumbar and sacral vertebrae fused together giving rigidity which aid in flight. The extensive fusion of vertebral column posterior to the neck provides the required rigidity in the trunk region, this inflexibility feature might reduce weight, as it avoids the need for extensive musculature to maintain a streamlined and rigid body posture during flight. The current study aimed to study the vertebral column of Indian eagle owl in order to understand the anatomical adaptations related to this species. Methods: The specimens were procured from three Indian eagle owl brought for post mortem examination during the year 2019 to the Department of Veterinary Pathology, Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Veterinary Education and Research, Puducherry. After completion of the post-mortem examination the carcass was collected and macerated as per the standard technique and various measurements on vertebral column bones were measured using vernier calliper. Result: The study revealed that vertebral column of Indian eagle owl consisted of 14 cervical vertebrae, 7 thoracic vertebrae, 13 to 14 lumbar vertebrae fused with sacral vertebrae forming synsacrum and 7 coccygeal vertebrae. The hypapophyses of the 14th cervical vertebra and first two thoracic vertebrae were trifid in nature specific feature seen in Indian eagle owl. The vertebral column had characteristics features of hypapophyses, transverse process, pneumatic foramen and neural spine which enable the owl to adapt for head rotation and various task involving vertebrae.

scholarly journals X-ray genetic phenotype of congenital disease development

2019 ◽  
Vol 15 (4) ◽  
pp. 414-421
Author(s):  
S. L. Kabak ◽  
V. V. Zatochnaya ◽  
N. O. Zhizhko-Mikhasevich
Keyword(s):  
Sagittal Plane ◽  
Cervical Vertebrae ◽  
First Trimester ◽  
Axial Skeleton ◽  
Intervertebral Disk ◽  
The Body ◽  
Ossification Center ◽  
Published Data ◽  
Thoracic Vertebrae ◽  
Vertebral Anomalies

The aim of the study is to describe the radiological phenotype of vertebral malformations in congenital scoliosis and to discuss the possible mechanisms of morphogenesis of some of these anomalies. The article describes 5 cases of complete or partial splitting in the sagittal plane of the body of one of the thoracic vertebrae (butterfly-shaped vertebra). The anterior vertebral cleft was combined with other congenital vertebral anomalies: block of vertebra, hemivertebrae, spina bifida posterior. All patients had scoliosis with right-sided or left-sided curves. In the human fetuses of the first trimester of gestation without visible malformations in the cartilaginous anlages of the thoracic vertebral bodies we revealed the presence of one o three centers of ossification, and in the fetus with exensephaly – the lack of the intervertebral disc anlage between the bodies C2-C3. According to the published data, the etiology of congenital vertebral anomalies is multifactorial. In the pathogenesis of this pathology, there is a violation of local blood flow due to the anomalous course of intersegmental arteries and as a consequence – a complete or partial separation of adjacent somites or associated mesenchyme. According to the published data, a possible cause of the anterior cleft may be untimely an involution of cartilage canals, the growth of which in the cartilaginous anlage of the vertebral body precedes the appearance of the ossification center. The absence of the intervertebral disk at a considerable length between the cartilaginous anlages of bodies 2 and 3 of the cervical vertebrae in the human fetus with exencephaly indicates a close relationship between the axial skeleton and the neural tube.

The paired homeobox gene Uncx4.1 specifies pedicles, transverse processes and proximal ribs of the vertebral column

Development ◽  
2000 ◽  
Vol 127 (11) ◽  
pp. 2259-2267 ◽  
Author(s):  
M. Leitges ◽  
L. Neidhardt ◽  
B. Haenig ◽  
B.G. Herrmann ◽  
A. Kispert
Keyword(s):  
Transcription Factor ◽  
Vertebral Column ◽  
Cell Mass ◽  
Homeobox Gene ◽  
Mesenchymal Cell ◽  
Axial Skeleton ◽  
Intervertebral Discs ◽  
Medial Part ◽  
Targeted Mutation ◽  
Vertebral Bodies

The axial skeleton develops from the sclerotome, a mesenchymal cell mass derived from the ventral halves of the somites, segmentally repeated units located on either side of the neural tube. Cells from the medial part of the sclerotome form the axial perichondral tube, which gives rise to vertebral bodies and intervertebral discs; the lateral regions of the sclerotome will form the vertebral arches and ribs. Mesenchymal sclerotome cells condense and differentiate into chondrocytes to form a cartilaginous pre-skeleton that is later replaced by bone tissue. Uncx4.1 is a paired type homeodomain transcription factor expressed in a dynamic pattern in the somite and sclerotome. Here we show that mice homozygous for a targeted mutation of the Uncx4.1 gene die perinatally and exhibit severe malformations of the axial skeleton. Pedicles, transverse processes and proximal ribs, elements derived from the lateral sclerotome, are lacking along the entire length of the vertebral column. The mesenchymal anlagen for these elements are formed initially, but condensation and chondrogenesis do not occur. Hence, Uncx4.1 is required for the maintenance and differentiation of particular elements of the axial skeleton.

The Axial Skeletons of Sunghir 1, 2, and 3

2014 ◽  
Author(s):  
Erik Trinkaus ◽  
Alexandra P. Buzhilova ◽  
Maria B. Mednikova ◽  
Maria V. Dobrovolskaya
Keyword(s):  
Radiocarbon Dating ◽  
Cervical Vertebrae ◽  
Costal Cartilage ◽  
Lumbar Vertebrae ◽  
Axial Skeleton ◽  
Age At Death ◽  
Vertebral Bodies ◽  
Length Scaling

Given their burial positions, on their backs with the trunks and limbs extended, the Sunghir 1 to 3 individuals should have retained major portions of their axial skeletons. This is the case for Sunghir 2 and 3, both of whom retain all of the cervical vertebrae, most of their thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, and major portions of their sacra. Sunghir 2 preserves portions of 23 of the 24 ribs, and Sunghir 3 retains at least a small piece of each of her 24 ribs. Moreover her left fifth and sixth ribs lack only their costal cartilage surfaces. Only Sunghir 3 preserves any elements of the sternum, two partial and separated sternebral segments. In contrast, despite the apparent presence of major portions of the axial skeleton in situ, little remains of the Sunghir 1 vertebrae, ribs, or sternum. The cervical vertebrae are absent, unless pieces of them are mixed with the collection of what appear to be thoracic and lumbar fragments. Only two vertebrae remain reasonably intact, the T1 and T2. There are eight pieces of vertebral bodies, one of which has a pathological growth (chapter 17). The ribs consist of small pieces, except for a largely intact left first rib. Although evident in the in situ photographs, nothing remains of the manubrium. There is also a piece of distal middle rib, which is of use for the age-at-death assessment. Some of the vertebral and rib pieces have been sacrificed over the years for direct radiocarbon dating (e.g., Kuzmin et al. 2004). Others pieces, heavily fissured and hence probably descending into fragments during excavation, were only partially retained. There are nonetheless a few aspects of the Sunghir axial skeletons, beyond age assessments (chapter 6), the pathological lesions on the Sunghir 1 vertebrae (chapter 17), use of the sacra in the pelves (chapter 14), and body length scaling for Sunghir 2 and 3 (chapter 11), that are of interest.

Skeletal metastases in advanced pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC): A retrospective analysis.

2018 ◽  
Vol 36 (4_suppl) ◽  
pp. 245-245
Author(s):  
Akshjot Puri ◽  
John Chang ◽  
Tomislav Dragovich ◽  
Patricia Lucente ◽  
Madappa N. Kundranda
Keyword(s):  
Retrospective Analysis ◽  
Cervical Vertebrae ◽  
Lumbar Vertebrae ◽  
Skeletal Metastasis ◽  
Ductal Adenocarcinoma ◽  
Skeletal Metastases ◽  
Initial Symptom ◽  
Intractable Pain ◽  
Thoracic Vertebrae ◽  
Pathological Fractures

245 Background: Skeletal metastasis (SM) in advanced PDAC is an infrequent occurrence and has been previously reported to be < 2.5%. However; pathological fractures in these patients can result in intractable pain, immobilization and a significant deterioration in quality of life. Methods: A retrospective analysis was conducted of patients (pts) with advanced PDAC receiving palliative chemotherapy. Data collection included age, gender, ECOG, sites of disease, and overall survival (OS). Statistical analysis included Kaplan Meier survival analysis. Results: The 135 pts included had a median age of 65.8 years (range: 53.7–91.3); 5 (31.2%) were women and 11 (68.7%) had an ECOG performance status of 0 or 1. A majority of patients received combination therapy that was either gemcitabine or 5-flurouracil based. Sixteen pts (11.8%) had skeletal metastasis with the primary tumor located in the pancreatic body/tail (11 pts - 68.7%).The sites of SM included thoracic vertebrae (8), lumbar vertebrae (5), pelvis (5), ribs (4), sacrum (4), scapula (3), acetabulum (2), cervical vertebrae (2), femoral head (2), sternum (1) and humerus head (1). A majority of the lesions were osteolytic (62.5%) with a median time of diagnosis of SM from initial diagnosis being 1.25 months (range 0-33). Bone pain was observed as the initial symptom in 5 pts (32%), 1 pt (6.2%) had a pathological fracture. The mOS for patients with SM was 6.5 months (range 0-38) when compared to 8 months (range 0-147) without SM.The mOS for pts treated with gemcitabine based regimen was 5.75 months (range 2.5-14), and patients who received multiple lines of therapy including gemcitabine and 5-FU based regimens was 15 months (range 5-38). Survival from onset of skeletal metastases ranged from 0-14 months (mOS: 4 months). Conclusions: More effective systemic therapies which improve mOS are likely to result in increased incidence of SM. The most common sites observed were the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae and pathological fractures in these sites can be catastrophic. Therefore careful evaluation of skeletal signs and symptoms, early detection and intervention will be important to prevent morbidity and mortality from pathological fractures.

An associated partial skeleton of Symbos cavifrons (Artiodactyla: Bovidae) from Montezuma County, Colorado

1987 ◽  
Vol 61 (4) ◽  
pp. 831-843 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jerry N. Mcdonald ◽  
Sarah W. Neusius ◽  
Vickie L. Clay
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Vertebral Column ◽  
Cervical Vertebrae ◽  
Axial Skeleton ◽  
The Third ◽  
New Information ◽  
Four Corners ◽  
Loess Deposition ◽  
Complete Set ◽  
Definition Of

A partial cranium and axial skeleton of an individual Symbos cavifrons were excavated in 1983 from the Mesa Verde Loess on Grass Mesa, Montezuma County, Colorado. Parts of at least 24 bones were recovered, including the first complete set of cervical vertebrae known for Symbos cavifrons. This individual, radiocarbon dated at 15,970 ± 155 yr B.P. (SI-6137), contributes to the definition of the southwestern edge of the range of the species and provides new information about the nature of the vertebral column. Pathologic constriction of the transverse canals is evident in the third and seventh cervical vertebrae. The pattern of bone distribution suggests that carnivores consumed part of this animal. The radiocarbon date also establishes the last major episode of loess deposition in the Four Corners region of the southwestern United States.

scholarly journals Morphological and functional changes in the vertebral column with increasing aquatic adaptation in crocodylomorphs

2015 ◽  
Vol 2 (11) ◽  
pp. 150439 ◽  
Author(s):  
Julia L. Molnar ◽  
Stephanie E. Pierce ◽  
Bhart-Anjan S. Bhullar ◽  
Alan H. Turner ◽  
John R. Hutchinson
Keyword(s):  
Soft Tissues ◽  
Morphological Changes ◽  
Three Dimensional ◽  
Joint Stiffness ◽  
Lumbar Vertebrae ◽  
Axial Skeleton ◽  
Locomotor System ◽  
Functional Changes ◽  
Aquatic Adaptation ◽  
Evolutionary Changes

The lineage leading to modern Crocodylia has undergone dramatic evolutionary changes in morphology, ecology and locomotion over the past 200+ Myr. These functional innovations may be explained in part by morphological changes in the axial skeleton, which is an integral part of the vertebrate locomotor system. Our objective was to estimate changes in osteological range of motion (RoM) and intervertebral joint stiffness of thoracic and lumbar vertebrae with increasing aquatic adaptation in crocodylomorphs. Using three-dimensional virtual models and morphometrics, we compared the modern crocodile Crocodylus to five extinct crocodylomorphs: Terrestrisuchus , Protosuchus , Pelagosaurus , Steneosaurus and Metriorhynchus , which span the spectrum from terrestrial to fully aquatic. In Crocodylus , we also experimentally measured changes in trunk flexibility with sequential removal of osteoderms and soft tissues. Our results for the more aquatic species matched our predictions fairly well, but those for the more terrestrial early crocodylomorphs did not. A likely explanation for this lack of correspondence is the influence of other axial structures, particularly the rigid series of dorsal osteoderms in early crocodylomorphs. The most important structures for determining RoM and stiffness of the trunk in Crocodylus were different in dorsoventral versus mediolateral bending, suggesting that changes in osteoderm and rib morphology over crocodylomorph evolution would have affected movements in some directions more than others.

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