Sex and Sex Differences

2013 ◽  
pp. 163-201 ◽  
Author(s):  
Melissa Hines
Keyword(s):  
Sex Differences ◽  
Cognitive Abilities ◽  
Cultural Influences ◽  
Mathematics Performance ◽  
Large Role ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
Male And Female ◽  
Verbal Abilities ◽  
Toy Preferences ◽  
Nature And Nurture

Male and female fetuses differ not only chromosomally but also hormonally. In addition, the postnatal social environment differs for boys and girls, as well as for men and women. Genes, hormones, socialization, and cognitive development combine to produce different behavior between the average male and female, as well as individual differences in sex-linked behaviors within each sex. This chapter reviews evidence regarding the specific influences of each type of factor on core gender identity and sexual orientation; cognitive abilities, such as spatial, mathematical, and verbal abilities; and childhood sex-typed behaviors (toy, activity, and playmate preferences). Conclusions suggest that both nature and nurture contribute to behavioral sex differences, although the degree to which each type of factor is important appears to vary for different endpoints, at least in the population groups studied to date. For instance, inborn factors appear to be particularly important for sex-typical toy preferences, whereas social and cultural influences appear to play a large role in sex differences in mathematics performance.

Toward Understanding the Contributions of Sex and Situation to Behavior in a College Setting

1987 ◽  
Vol 60 (3) ◽  
pp. 875-883
Author(s):  
Nancy Lipsitt ◽  
Rose R. Olver
Keyword(s):  
Sex Differences ◽  
The Other ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
Male And Female ◽  
Relative Contribution ◽  
College Setting ◽  
Female Subjects

The relative contribution of sex and situation has become a contested issue in the understanding of sex differences in behavior. In the present study, 20 male and 20 female undergraduates were asked to describe their behavior and thoughts in six everyday college situations. Three of the situations were constructed to be typically male and three typically female in content. The results indicate that men and women demonstrate sex-specific characteristics in their responses regardless of the type of situation presented. Men exhibited concern with separateness from others, while women exhibited concern with sustaining connection to others, even when faced with situations described to present demand properties that might be expected specifically to elicit the concern characteristic of the other sex. However, for these students the situation also made a difference: female-defined situations elicited the most masculine responses for both male and female subjects.

Assessment of Motives and Orientations

1979 ◽  
Vol 45 (2) ◽  
pp. 555-561 ◽  
Author(s):  
Richard P. Youniss ◽  
Maurice Lorr ◽  
Edward C. Stefic
Keyword(s):  
High School ◽  
Sex Differences ◽  
College Women ◽  
College Men ◽  
Personality Types ◽  
Dimensional Structure ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
Male And Female ◽  
Scale Scores ◽  
Discriminant Function Analyses

Study aims to test for the hypothesized dimensional structure of a revision and extension of the Orientation and Motivation Inventory (OMI) and to check for sex differences. The 12-scale inventory was administered to 307 high school and college men, and to 184 college women. The intercorrelations among the half scale scores for the men and for the women were separately factor analyzed and rotated. For men, 10 of the factors, and for women, 11 of the factors hypothesized were confirmed. Five second-order dimensions were identified in both men and women. The scores were next applied in discriminant function analyses to differentiate male and female subjects allocated to one of Holland's six personality types. The results provide some support for the validity of the motivational scales.

scholarly journals Testing the greater male variability phenomenon: male mountain chickadees exhibit larger variation in reversal learning performance compared with females

2020 ◽  
Vol 287 (1931) ◽  
pp. 20200895
Author(s):  
Carrie L. Branch ◽  
Benjamin R. Sonnenberg ◽  
Angela M. Pitera ◽  
Lauren M. Benedict ◽  
Dovid Y. Kozlovsky ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Sex Differences ◽  
Cognitive Performance ◽  
Cognitive Abilities ◽  
Memory Task ◽  
Spatial Task ◽  
Learning Performance ◽  
Spatial Learning And Memory ◽  
Male And Female ◽  
Food Caching ◽  
Range Of Variation

The greater male variability phenomenon predicts that males exhibit larger ranges of variation in cognitive performance compared with females; however, support for this pattern has come exclusively from studies of humans and lacks mechanistic explanation. Furthermore, the vast majority of the literature assessing sex differences in cognition is based on studies of humans and a few other mammals. In order to elucidate the underpinnings of cognitive variation and the potential for fitness consequences, we must investigate sex differences in cognition in non-mammalian systems as well. Here, we assess the performance of male and female food-caching birds on a spatial learning and memory task and a reversal spatial task to address whether there are sex differences in mean cognitive performance or in the range of variation in performance. For both tasks, male and female mean performance was similar across four years of testing; however, males did exhibit a wider range of variation in performance on the reversal spatial task compared with females. The implications for mate choice and sexual selection of cognitive abilities are discussed and future directions are suggested to aid in the understanding of sex-related cognitive variation.

Sex Differences in Cerebral Tissue Volume and Cognitive Performance during Adolescence

2002 ◽  
Vol 91 (3) ◽  
pp. 743-757 ◽  
Author(s):  
Deborah A. Yurgelun-Todd ◽  
William D. S. Killgore ◽  
Ashley D. Young
Keyword(s):  
Sex Differences ◽  
Cognitive Performance ◽  
Cognitive Abilities ◽  
Gray Matter Volume ◽  
Developmental Trajectory ◽  
Cerebral Tissue ◽  
Verbal Abilities ◽  
Tissue Volume ◽  
Matter Volume ◽  
Speed Of Information Processing

Adolescent development is associated with progressive increases in the ratio of cerebral white-to-gray matter volume, but it is unclear how these changes relate to cognitive development and whether they are associated with sex-specific variability in cerebral maturation. We examined sex differences in the relation between cerebral tissue volume and cognitive performance in 30 healthy adolescents (ages 13 to 17 years) using morphometric magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). In the 10 boys, greater white matter volume during adolescence was positively correlated with faster speed of information processing and better verbal abilities, while cerebrospinal fluid volume was negatively correlated with verbal abilities. No significant relations between cerebral tissue volume and cognitive abilities were found for the sample of 20 girls, raising the possibility of a different developmental trajectory for females that was not sampled in the age range of this study. Findings suggest sex-specific developmental differences in the relations between cerebral structure and function.

Cognitive Abilities of Gifted Students as Measured by the Developing Cognitive Abilities Test

1984 ◽  
Vol 7 (3) ◽  
pp. 170-177
Author(s):  
Frances A. Karnes ◽  
Leta Lee
Keyword(s):  
Research Group ◽  
Cognitive Abilities ◽  
Gifted Students ◽  
Female Students ◽  
Male And Female ◽  
Verbal Abilities ◽  
Spatial Component ◽  
Significant Difference ◽  
Cognitive Abilities Test ◽  
Intellectually Gifted

The Developing Cognitive Abilities Test was administered to 97 intellectually gifted students. Both male and female students achieved their highest scores on the verbal abilities component of the test while males scored higher than females on the spatial component. The research group of gifted students scored significantly higher than the norming group on the four subtests representing knowledge, comprehension, application and analysis; there was no significant difference between the scores for the two groups on the synthesis subtest.

Introduction

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Saul M. Olyan
Keyword(s):  
Cultural Influences ◽  
Well Being ◽  
Voluntary Association ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
Male And Female ◽  
North Americans ◽  
The People ◽  
Parents And Children ◽  
Orientation Class ◽  
Being There

What is friendship? At first blush, the answer seems obvious: Friendship is a voluntary association between people who enjoy one another’s company and care, at least to some degree, about one another’s welfare. But this definition, which would probably elicit few objections from most present-day Europeans and North Americans, does not address a number of contested issues in contemporary Western friendship. For example, is it possible for men and women to be friends? Must friends be peers in every respect, or is there room for age differences, or inequality of income, social status, or power? Can parents and children be friends? Might sexual relations play a role in friendship? Does friendship necessarily involve emotional intimacy? Are there contrasting male and female, gay and straight, working-class and middle-class friendship patterns? Each of these questions would very likely stimulate debate among the people I know, and the answers would probably depend on some combination of the generation, gender, sexual orientation, class, and cultural background of the respondent. Apart from agreeing that friends associate voluntarily, like one another, and take an interest in one another’s well-being, there might not be much consensus among my friends, neighbors, colleagues, students, and family members about the contested aspects of friendship that I have mentioned. Were we to go beyond speculation about the views of the people I encounter in my life, and conduct research on the beliefs about friendship held by a larger population of contemporary North Americans or other Westerners, I would expect to find even less agreement about what constitutes friendship. In short, friendship as we know it in contemporary Europe and North America is shaped by a variety of socio-cultural influences and ...

Evolutionary Psychology, Ethology, and Essentialism (Because What They Don't Know Can Hurt Us)

Hypatia ◽  
2012 ◽  
Vol 27 (1) ◽  
pp. 3-27 ◽  
Author(s):  
Letitia Meynell
Keyword(s):  
Sex Differences ◽  
Evolutionary Psychology ◽  
Research Program ◽  
Common Ancestor ◽  
Prima Facie ◽  
Popular Media ◽  
Vervet Monkeys ◽  
Male And Female ◽  
Toy Preferences ◽  
Human Behaviors

In 2002, Evolution and Human Behavior published a study purporting to show that the differences in toy preferences commonly attributed to girls and boys can also be found in male and female vervet monkeys, tracing the origin of these differing preferences back to a common ancestor. Despite some flaws in its design and the prima facie implausibility of some of its central claims, this research received considerable attention in both scientific circles and the popular media. In what follows, I survey some of the problems with this study that seem to be characteristic of research into sex differences in a particular research program in evolutionary psychology. I suggest that an epistemology of ignorance is at work that suppresses the methods and insights of an earlier research program, which emphasized the complexity and contingency that ultimately grounds the variety of human behaviors, in favor of one that has been widely criticized as empirically flawed and politically pernicious. I conclude with some speculative remarks on the persistence of this problematic research program in evolutionary psychology.

scholarly journals Cognition across the Lifespan: Investigating Age, Sex, and Other Sociodemographic Influences

2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (4) ◽  
pp. 51
Author(s):  
Emily S. Nichols ◽  
Conor J. Wild ◽  
Adrian M. Owen ◽  
Andrea Soddu
Keyword(s):  
Sex Differences ◽  
Demographic Factors ◽  
Cognitive Testing ◽  
Clear Understanding ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
Cognitive Domains ◽  
Verbal Abilities ◽  
Psychiatric Illnesses ◽  
Socio Demographic Factors ◽  
Anxiety Depression

Maintaining cognitive health across the lifespan has been the focus of a multi-billion-dollar industry. In order to guide treatment and interventions, a clear understanding of the way that proficiency in different cognitive domains develops and declines in both sexes across the lifespan is necessary. Additionally, there are sex differences in a range of other factors, including psychiatric illnesses such as anxiety, depression, and substance use, that are also known to affect cognition, although the scale of this interaction is unknown. Our objective was to assess differences in cognitive function across the lifespan in men and women in a large, representative sample. Leveraging online cognitive testing, a sample of 9451 men and 9451 women ranging in age from 12 to 69 (M = 28.21) matched on socio-demographic factors were studied. Segmented regression was used to model three cognitive domains—working memory, verbal abilities, and reasoning. Sex differences in all three domains were minimal; however, after broadening the sample in terms of socio-demographic factors, sex differences appeared. These results suggest that cognition across the lifespan differs for men and women, but is greatly influenced by environmental factors. We discuss these findings within a framework that describes sex differences in cognition as likely guided by a complex interplay between biology and environment.

scholarly journals A Comparison of the Effect of Strength Training on Cycling Performance between Men and Women

2021 ◽  
Vol 6 (1) ◽  
pp. 29
Author(s):  
Olav Vikmoen ◽  
Bent R. Rønnestad
Keyword(s):  
Sex Differences ◽  
Strength Training ◽  
Endurance Training ◽  
Cycling Performance ◽  
Concurrent Training ◽  
Sectional Area ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
Male And Female ◽  
Muscle Cross Sectional Area

During the last decade numerous review articles have been published on how concurrent strength and endurance training affect cycling performance. However, none of these have reviewed if there are any sex differences in the effects of concurrent training on cycling performance, and most research in this area has been performed with male cyclists. Thus, the aim of the current paper is to review the scientific literature on the effect of concurrent training on cycling performance in male and female cyclists with a special emphasis on potential sex differences. The results indicate that both male and female cyclists experience a similar beneficial effect from concurrent training on cycling performance and its physiological determinants compared to normal endurance training only. Some data indicate that women have a larger effect on cycling economy, but more studies are needed to explore this further. Furthermore, the adaptations to strength training thought to be responsible for the beneficial effects on cycling performance seem to be very similar between men and women. Interestingly, increased muscle cross-sectional area in the main locomotor muscles seems to be an important adaptation for improved performance, and, contrary to popular belief, cyclists should aim for increased muscle cross-sectional area when adding strength training to their normal training. We conclude that both male and female cyclists can improve their cycling performance by adding strength training to their normal training.

Two Approaches to Evaluating Sex Differences on Participation Outcomes Among Veterans With Traumatic Brain Injury

2021 ◽  
Vol 75 (Supplement_2) ◽  
pp. 7512500040p1-7512500040p1
Author(s):  
Alison M. Cogan ◽  
Jennifer A. Weaver ◽  
Trudy Mallinson ◽  
Theresa Bender Pape ◽  
Joel Scholten
Keyword(s):  
Traumatic Brain Injury ◽  
Sex Differences ◽  
Brain Injury ◽  
Financial Management ◽  
Self Report ◽  
Female Veterans ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
Male And Female ◽  
Participation Restrictions ◽  
Primary Author

Abstract Date Presented Accepted for AOTA INSPIRE 2021 but unable to be presented due to online event limitations. We used two different quantitative analytic approaches to examine whether there were sex differences in self-reported participation restrictions among male and female veterans with traumatic brain injury. Findings suggest that women have more challenges with leisure and employment and fewer challenges with residence and financial management than men. Total raw scores may obscure important differences in how men and women self-report participation restrictions. Primary Author and Speaker: Alison M. Cogan Contributing Authors: Jennifer A. Weaver, Trudy Mallinson, Theresa Bender Pape, and Joel Scholten

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