Linking brains and brawn: exercise and the evolution of human neurobiology

The hunting and gathering lifestyle adopted by human ancestors around 2 Ma required a large increase in aerobic activity. High levels of physical activity altered the shape of the human body, enabling access to new food resources (e.g. animal protein) in a changing environment. Recent experimental work provides strong evidence that both acute bouts of exercise and long-term exercise training increase the size of brain components and improve cognitive performance in humans and other taxa. However, to date, researchers have not explored the possibility that the increases in aerobic capacity and physical activity that occurred during human evolution directly influenced the human brain. Here, we hypothesize that proximate mechanisms linking physical activity and neurobiology in living species may help to explain changes in brain size and cognitive function during human evolution. We review evidence that selection acting on endurance increased baseline neurotrophin and growth factor signalling (compounds responsible for both brain growth and for metabolic regulation during exercise) in some mammals, which in turn led to increased overall brain growth and development. This hypothesis suggests that a significant portion of human neurobiology evolved due to selection acting on features unrelated to cognitive performance.

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What determines evolutionary brain growth?

Behavioral and Brain Sciences ◽

10.1017/s0140525x01223954 ◽

2001 ◽

Vol 24 (2) ◽

pp. 278-279 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Francisco Aboitiz

Keyword(s):

Human Evolution ◽

Brain Size ◽

Processing Capacity ◽

Brain Growth ◽

Developmental Constraints ◽

Size Evolution ◽

Selection For

Finlay et al. address the importance of developmental constraints in brain size evolution. I discuss some aspects of this view such as the relation of brain size with processing capacity. In particular, I argue that in human evolution there must have been specific selection for increased processing capacity, and as a consequence for increased brain size.

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ExerLearning®

Design and Implementation of Educational Games ◽

10.4018/978-1-61520-781-7.ch026 ◽

2010 ◽

pp. 409-423 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Judy Shasek

Keyword(s):

Physical Activity ◽

Academic Success ◽

Cognitive Performance ◽

Classroom Behavior ◽

Direct Connection ◽

Aerobic Activity ◽

Mind And Body ◽

K 12 ◽

And Function ◽

The Brain

ExerLearning® provides parents, educators and others with a solid background of the direct connection between regular, rhythmic aerobic activity, balance, eye-foot coordination and academic success. We can increase students’ fitness while simultaneously increasing their academic success. Activity breaks have been shown to improve cognitive performance and promote on-task classroom behavior. Today’s exergame and related computer technology can seamlessly deliver activity without over-burdening busy teachers in grades K-12. Activity isn’t optional for humans, and our brain, along with its ability to learn and function at its best, isn’t a separate “thing” perched in our heads. The wiring, the circulation, the connection between mind and body is very real. The brain is made up of one hundred billion neurons that chat with one another by way of hundreds of different chemicals. Physical activity can enhance the availability and delivery of those chemicals. Harnessing technology to that activity is the ExerLearning solution.

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ExerLearning®

Gamification ◽

10.4018/978-1-4666-8200-9.ch017 ◽

2015 ◽

pp. 349-363

Author(s):

Judy Shasek

Keyword(s):

Physical Activity ◽

Academic Success ◽

Cognitive Performance ◽

Classroom Behavior ◽

Direct Connection ◽

Aerobic Activity ◽

Mind And Body ◽

K 12 ◽

And Function ◽

The Brain

ExerLearning® provides parents, educators and others with a solid background of the direct connection between regular, rhythmic aerobic activity, balance, eye-foot coordination and academic success. We can increase students' fitness while simultaneously increasing their academic success. Activity breaks have been shown to improve cognitive performance and promote on-task classroom behavior. Today's exergame and related computer technology can seamlessly deliver activity without over-burdening busy teachers in grades K-12. Activity isn't optional for humans, and our brain, along with its ability to learn and function at its best, isn't a separate “thing” perched in our heads. The wiring, the circulation, the connection between mind and body is very real. The brain is made up of one hundred billion neurons that chat with one another by way of hundreds of different chemicals. Physical activity can enhance the availability and delivery of those chemicals. Harnessing technology to that activity is the ExerLearning solution.

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ExerLearning®

Gamification for Human Factors Integration - Advances in Human and Social Aspects of Technology ◽

10.4018/978-1-4666-5071-8.ch007 ◽

2014 ◽

pp. 106-121

Author(s):

Judy Shasek

Keyword(s):

Physical Activity ◽

Academic Success ◽

Cognitive Performance ◽

Classroom Behavior ◽

Direct Connection ◽

Aerobic Activity ◽

Mind And Body ◽

K 12 ◽

And Function ◽

The Brain

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The Benefits of Physical Activity in Individuals with Cardiovascular Risk Factors: A Longitudinal Investigation Using fNIRS and Dual-Task Walking

Journal of Clinical Medicine ◽

10.3390/jcm10040579 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 10 (4) ◽

pp. 579

Author(s):

Deborah Talamonti ◽

Thomas Vincent ◽

Sarah Fraser ◽

Anil Nigam ◽

Frédéric Lesage ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Physical Activity ◽

Risk Factors ◽

Older Adults ◽

Cardiovascular Risk ◽

Cardiovascular Risk Factors ◽

Cognitive Performance ◽

Dual Task ◽

Gait Speed ◽

Regular Physical Activity ◽

Cortical Response

Cardiovascular fitness is linked to better executive functions, preserved gait speed, and efficient cortical activity. Older adults with cardiovascular risk factors (CVRFs) typically show poor cognitive performance, low physical fitness, and altered brain functioning compared with healthy individuals. In the current study, the impact of regular physical activity on cognition, locomotion, and brain functions was explored in a cohort of older adults with low or high CVRFs. Cortical activation of the frontal areas was investigated using functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) at baseline, at 6 months and at 12 months. Evoked cortical response and behavioral performance were assessed using the dual-task walking paradigm, consisting of three conditions: single cognitive task (2-back task), single walking task (walking), and dual-task (2-back whilst walking). Results show greater task-related cortical response at baseline in individuals with high CVRFs compared to those with low CVRFs. Moreover, participants with high CVRFs benefitted the most from participating in regular physical activity, as their cortical response decreased at the 12-month follow-up and became comparable to that of participants with low CVRFs. These changes were observed in conjunction with improved cognitive performance and stable gait speed throughout the 12-month period in both groups. Our findings provide evidence that participation in regular physical activity may be especially beneficial in individuals with CVRFs by promoting brain and cognitive health, thus potentially contributing to prevention of cognitive decline. Future research may explore whether such effects are maintained in the long-term in order to design ad-hoc interventions in this specific population.

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SMART STEP – SMARTphone-driven exercise and pedometer-based STEP intervention to promote physical activity among desk-based employees: Study protocol for a three-arm cluster randomized controlled trial

Work ◽

10.3233/wor-213544 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 1-17

Author(s):

Baskaran Chandrasekaran ◽

Chythra R Rao ◽

Fiddy Davis ◽

Ashokan Arumugam

Keyword(s):

Physical Activity ◽

Cognitive Performance ◽

Sports Medicine ◽

Cardiometabolic Risk ◽

Controlled Trial ◽

Fasting Blood Glucose ◽

Subcutaneous Fat ◽

Work Productivity ◽

Sitting Time ◽

Sickness Absenteeism

BACKGROUND: Prolonged sitting in desk-based office workers is found to be associated with increased cardiometabolic risk and poor cognitive performance. Technology-based physical activity (PA) interventions using smartphone applications (SmPh app) to promote PA levels might be effective in reducing cardiometabolic risk among sedentary population but the evidence remains inconclusive. OBJECTIVE: The objective is to investigate the effects of a technology-based PA intervention compared to PA education with a worksite manual or no intervention on PA levels, cardiometabolic risk, cognitive performance, and work productivity among desk-based employees. METHOD: A three-arm clustered randomized trial will be conducted. The study will be conducted among various administrative offices of a multifaceted university in India. Desk-based employees aged between 30 and 50 years (n = 159; 53 in each arm) will be recruited. Employees from various constituent institutions (clusters) of the university will be randomized into one of the three following groups - SMART: SmPh app-driven break reminders (visual exercise prompts) plus pedometer-based step intervention, TRADE: worksite PA education with a manual plus American College of Sports Medicine guided PA prescription, or CONTROL: usual work group. At baseline and after the 1st, 3rd and 6th month of the trial period, accelerometer-measured sitting time and PA levels, cardiometabolic risk (fasting blood glucose, triglycerides, insulin, blood pressure, heart rate variability, functional capacity, and subcutaneous fat), cognitive performance (executive function), sickness absenteeism and work limitations will be assessed by a blinded assessor. Therapist delivering interventions will not be blinded. CONCLUSION: This trial will determine whether a combined SmPh-app and pedometer-based intervention is more effective than education or no intervention in altering PA levels, cardiometabolic risk and cognitive performance among desk-based employees in India. This study has the potential to foster institutional recommendations for using SmPh-based technology and pedometers to promote PA at work.

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Walking Cadence to Exercise at Moderate Intensity for Adults: A Systematic Review

Journal of Sports Medicine ◽

10.1155/2017/4641203 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 2017 ◽

pp. 1-12 ◽

Cited By ~ 9

Author(s):

J. Slaght ◽

M. Sénéchal ◽

T. J. Hrubeniuk ◽

A. Mayo ◽

D. R. Bouchard

Keyword(s):

Physical Activity ◽

Systematic Review ◽

Older Adults ◽

Leisure Activity ◽

Moderate Intensity ◽

Activity Levels ◽

Physical Activity Guidelines ◽

Aerobic Activity ◽

Physical Activity Levels

Background. Most adults choose walking as a leisure activity. However, many do not reach the international physical activity guidelines for adults, which recommend moderate intensity aerobic activity for at least 150 minutes/week in bouts of 10 minutes. Purpose. This systematic review provides an update on the walking cadence required to reach moderate intensity in adults and older adults, identifies variables associated with reaching moderate intensity, and evaluates how walking cadence intensity should be measured, but the main purpose is to report the interventions that have been attempted to prescribe walking cadence to increase time spent at moderate intensity or other outcomes for adults and older adults. Methods. SportDISCUS, Scopus, and PubMed databases were searched. We identified 3,917 articles and 31 were retained for this systematic review. Only articles written in English were included. Results. In general, 100 steps/minute is prescribed for adults to achieve moderate intensity, but older adults may require a higher cadence. Currently, few studies have explored using walking cadence prescription as an intervention to increase physical activity levels. Conclusion. Prescribing walking cadence as a way to increase physical activity levels has potential as a practical and useful strategy, but more evidence is required to assess its ability to increase physical activity levels at moderate intensity.

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