scholarly journals XII - On the internal structure of some mesozoic brachiopoda

1934 ◽  
Vol 223 (494-508) ◽  
pp. 511-567 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Internal Structure ◽  
Mutual Relationship ◽  
Numerous Species

The present paper shows how a method of research hitherto but tentatively used by a few workers on the internal characters of Brachiopod shells has been elaborated and applied to certain Mesozoic genera of different families, and has resulted in establishing the relationships of the forms examined more satisfactorily than by methods hitherto employed. It embodies some results of two years’ research on the identification and classification of such numerous species of the Brachiopod families Rhynchonellidae, Terebratulidae, and Terebratellidae, as are found in Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks. At the present time less than half of the Mesozoic Brachiopods are specifically determinable, and little or nothing is known of their internal structure, their mutual relationship, or their evolution. This is probably because internal casts are rare, and in Jurassic and Cretaceous species the two valves are not as a rule found detached from one another.

Classification of obligations and the impact of constructivist epistemologies

Legal Studies ◽  
1997 ◽  
Vol 17 (3) ◽  
pp. 448-482 ◽  
Author(s):  
Geoffrey Samuel
Keyword(s):  
Internal Structure ◽  
Legal Knowledge ◽  
The Law ◽  
The Impact ◽  
Epistemological Point ◽  
Legal Classification

In December 1996 Classification of Obligations formed the topic of one of a series of SPTL seminars under the general title of Pressing Problems in the Law. It may, perhaps, be asked quite why classification is a pressing problem, for it is by no means clear from the papers themselves that common lawyers have suddenly become more concerned about the internal structure of the ‘seamless web’. Nevertheless the seminar was a valuable opportunity to reflect upon a subject that is at least a useful vehicle for thinking about legal knowledge. Legal classification, in other words, raises questions of an epistemological nature. The purpose of this present paper is to pursue this epistemological point in an attempt to reveal how classification of symbolic knowledge (legal propositions or rules) hides much deeper issues about the role of non-symbolic knowledge (symmetries, images and isomorphs) in the formulation of legal solutions in the law of obligations.

XLI. On the anatomy and physiology of the spongiadæ.—Part III. On the generic characters, the specific characters, and on the method of examination

1862 ◽  
Vol 152 ◽  
pp. 1087-1135 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Natural History ◽  
Internal Structure ◽  
Careful Examination ◽  
Systematic Classification ◽  
Numerous Species ◽  
Anatomy And Physiology ◽  
Number Of Species ◽  
The World ◽  
Differential Characters ◽  
General Action

While the arrangement of other branches of natural history has occupied the attention of some of the most laborious and talented naturalists of every age, the Spongiadæ appear to have scarcely attracted sufficient attention to excite any writer on natural history to a serious attempt at a systematic classification. This neglect has not arisen from any incapacity for a definite arrangement on the part of the Spongiadæ, as the organic differential characters of the numerous groups into which, by careful examination, they may be readily divided are as varied and as widely removed from each other as are the strikingly distinct and well defined divisions of the Corallidæ; and the number of species I believe to be very much greater than those of the latter class. Of British species alone I am already acquainted with 150 or more; and new ones are continually being discovered by the aid of the dredge. It becomes therefore a matter of necessity that we should classify their permanent varieties of structure, and found on them a series of orders, suborders, and genera, and through these subdivisions become enabled to recognize more readily the very numerous species of these animals which abound in all parts of the world. De Blainville proposed to include the whole of the Spongiadæ under the designation of Amorphozoa; but this term is objectionable, as all sponges cannot be considered as shapeless—on the contrary, many genera and species exhibit much constancy in their form. Neither can the term be justly applied to their internal structure, as we find in Grantia , Geodia , Tethea , and other genera regular and systematical structures which are very far removed from shapelessness. I have therefore thought it advisable to adopt Dr. Grant’s designation of Porifera, a term which embraces the whole of the Spongiadæ, and which is truly descriptive of the most essential general action of the animal's power and mode of imbibing nutriment, which in every species with which I am acquainted is, by a series of minute pores distributed over the external membrane of the sponge.

scholarly journals Non-Derivative and Derivative Homonyms in the Russian and Uzbek Languages

2019 ◽  
Vol 10 (4) ◽  
pp. 906-919
Author(s):  
Bakhram Sh. Kurbanov
Keyword(s):  
Internal Structure ◽  
Word Formation ◽  
Main Criterion ◽  
Important Place

The article discusses questions regarding non-derivative and derivative homonyms by the example of verbs of the Russian and Uzbek languages. In sight are the problems of distinguishing polysemy and homonymy, the criteria for determining their boundaries. The basis of the study is the study of the internal structure of the word. The classification of non-derivative and derivative verbs-homonyms of the Russian and Uzbek languages is presented taking into account the ways of their formation, derivative and non-derivative lexemes depending on the place in the word-building nest. Examples of word-formation types, in particular, affix word-formation methods inherent in the formation of verbal homonyms in the comparable Russian and Uzbek languages are given. The article also deals with the features and distinctive properties of lexical, derivational homonyms, examples of reflected homonymy in the system of derivational nests are given. Word-building nests are considered as the main criterion for determining the production and non-production of verbal homonyms of the Russian and Uzbek languages. The classification of non-derivative and derivative homonyms of the Russian and Uzbek languages is developed. Examples of compiling word-formation nests of verbs in the Uzbek language are given, taking into account the possibility of the formation of the largest number of derivatives in the structure of nests. Consequently, fragments are shown regarding the organization of reflected homonymy in both Russian and Uzbek languages. The analysis results indicate that the phenomenon of homonymy in the Russian and Uzbek languages has regular and systemic character. The regularity of relationships and interactions of lexical paradigms of comparable languages in the formation of derivatives, in particular, reflected homonyms, is argued. An important place in this is given to homonymy, arising due to the homonymy of foundations and affixes.

scholarly journals A Bayesian Phylogenetic Classification of Tupí-Guaraní

2015 ◽  
Vol 15 (2) ◽  
pp. 193 ◽  
Author(s):  
Lev Michael ◽  
Natalia Chousou-Polydouri ◽  
Keith Bartolomei ◽  
Erin Donnelly ◽  
Sérgio Meira ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Phylogenetic Analysis ◽  
Internal Structure ◽  
Character Table ◽  
Loss Model ◽  
Phylogenetic Classification ◽  
Bayesian Phylogenetic Analysis ◽  
Binary Coding ◽  
Semantic Shift ◽  
Lexical Data

This paper presents an internal classification of Tupí-Guaraní based on lexical data from 30 Tupí-Guaraní languages and 2 non-Tupí-Guaraní Tupian languages, Awetí and Mawé. A Bayesian phylogenetic analysis using a generalized binary cognate gain and loss model was carried out on a character table based on the binary coding of cognate sets, which were formed with attention to semantic shift. The classification shows greater internal structure than previous ones, but is congruent with them in several ways.

scholarly journals A Typological Classification of Cyrillic Manuscripts Containing Texts from Piotr Skarga’s Book Żywoty Świętych

2020 ◽  
Vol 65 (1) ◽  
pp. 30-42
Author(s):  
Galina Sapozhnikova
Keyword(s):  
Internal Structure ◽  
Grand Duchy Of Lithuania ◽  
Specific Part ◽  
Grand Duchy ◽  
Typological Classification

The article is devoted to the typological classification of manuscripts containing Ruthenian and Church Slavonic translations of the extensive Polish book Żywoty świętych written by the Jesuit Piotr Skarga. Unlike the Polish original, these translations have not been studied extensively and represent a specific part of Cyrillic writing of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland. The objectives of the article are to show (1) what types of manuscripts did the translated texts from the book of the lives of Piotr Skarga fall into and to answer (2) which manuscripts contain a higher concentration of the translations. The data from special works on this topic were taken into account; the list of sources known from these works was significantly expanded. Most of the manuscripts were examined de visu. A description of the content has been prepared for each manuscript, the identified translations are included in the compiled consolidated catalog of such translations, and the results obtained were verified by comparing them with the lists of translated texts available in the studies. Both the internal structure and the content of the manuscripts in question made it possible to distinguish six typological groups, namely, miscellanies of the lives from Żywoty Świętych, miscellanies with mixed content, miscellanies of the Menaion type, the Festal Homiliary (Torzhestvennik), Didactic Gospels, and Synaxarion (Prologue). Apart from the unique miscellany containing nothing more than Cyrillic versions of hagiographical texts from Skarga’s Żywoty Świętych, the greatest concentration of these translations is attested in the Menaion type of miscellanies, which are structurally quite close to their printed Polish source.

scholarly journals Sub-areas in steep rock salt formations – what do we know about the geological composition of North German salt structures?

2021 ◽  
Vol 1 ◽  
pp. 73-74
Author(s):  
Lukas Pollok ◽  
Mareike Henneberg
Keyword(s):  
Internal Structure ◽  
Rock Salt ◽  
Site Selection ◽  
Selection Process ◽  
Detailed Knowledge ◽  
Suitable Host ◽  
Geological Conditions ◽  
Salt Structure ◽  
Host Rocks

Abstract. Suitable host rocks for a repository for high-level radioactive waste (HLW) in Germany include not only clay and crystalline rocks but also rock salt formations in so-called flat and steep bedding (StandAG, 2017). Favourable repository relevant properties of rock salt are, e.g. the high heat conductivity, low porosity and permeability, and its viscoplastic deformation behaviour. Thicker salt deposits can be attributed to the formation of approx. 700 salt structures that have formed under various geological conditions in the North German Basin (NGB) over the last 250 million years. According to their shape and genesis, salt structures are classified as salt pillows (considered as flat bedding) or salt diapirs (steep bedding). Out of a total of 74 sub-areas in rock salt, 60 sub-areas in salt diapirs consisting of Permian evaporates were identified within the first phase of the German site selection procedure (BGE, 2020). At the current stage of the site selection process, a conservative approach has been adopted and the internal structure of the salt structures have not yet been taken into account for further classification of the identified sub-areas. However, the interior of the salt structures not only consists of rock salt but also of varying proportions of clay, carbonate and anhydrite rocks, as well as potassium salts formed by progressive evaporation of marine brines. Multi-phase salt tectonics has led to the folding of these differently composed layers and to complex internal structures. Therefore, detailed knowledge of the salt structure compositions is necessary to identify suitable rock salt areas for the designation of the containment providing rock zone. As a result of decades of research through extensive salt and potash mining, cavern storage and exploration for final waste disposal, Permian salt rocks represent a well-studied host rock in Germany. The use of different exploration methods and multidisciplinary data evaluation have led to a comprehensive understanding of the internal composition of some well-studied salt structures. Systematic studies have shown that several factors have influenced the formation of salt structures as well as their external shapes, sizes, and spatial distribution (e.g., Pollok et al., 2020). Furthermore, the amount and distribution of suitable host rocks varies greatly in different salt structures and is closely related to their internal structure. Since the interior of salt structures has not been considered in the site selection process so far, a classification of salt structures (or sub-areas) into certain types with varying internal composition and complexity is presented. By examining their lithofacial composition, genesis, and structural geological position within the basin, it is possible to narrow down these types to specific areas in the NGB. Without the acquisition of additional exploration data in this phase of the site selection process, this salt structure classification provides important data for the legally demanded assessment of the overall favourable geological situation.

scholarly journals Proposal of a Classification of Analogies

2020 ◽  
Vol 40 (1) ◽  
pp. 109-137
Author(s):  
David Alvargonzález
Keyword(s):  
Internal Structure ◽  
Thought Experiments ◽  
General Idea ◽  
Different Types

In this paper, I will propose a classification of analogies based on their internal structure. Selecting the criteria used in that classification first requires discussing the minimal constitutive parts of any analogy. Accordingly, I will discuss the differences between analogy and similarity and between analogy and “synalogy,” and I will stress the importance of the analogy of operations and procedures.  Finally, I will set forth a classification of the different types of analogies, which lends itself to a further understanding of the differences between certain modulations of the general idea of analogy, such as archetypes, prototypes, models, simulations, parables, paradigms, canons, maps, thought experiments, myths, utopias, dystopias and fables.

scholarly journals Differentiation of rural areas in Kainuu, Finland

1992 ◽  
pp. 81-94
Author(s):  
Elli Karjalainen
Keyword(s):  
Internal Structure ◽  
Rural Area ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Multivariate Method ◽  
Registration Data ◽  
Migration Flows ◽  
Rural Municipalities ◽  
Local Levels ◽  
Land Register

The aim is to examine areal differences in development at the regional and local levels employing migration as the chief indicator. In order to obtain a classification of the municipalities and their internal structure a model for migration within a municipality is constructed, based on the notion that the relations between migration flows alter with time as the municipality or area concerned undergoes the processes of agglomeration of population and modernization. The material on which the survey is based consists of change of address registration data for those moving permanently, a total of 54,606 events applying to the rural municipalities of Kainuu in 1980—85. Areal units at a lower level are obtained by considering the land register villages and the built-up area — rural area dimension. Grouping analysis is used as the multivariate method for processing the data.

An Artist's Works through the Eyes of a Physicist: Graphic Illustration of Particle Symmetries

Leonardo ◽  
2006 ◽  
Vol 39 (1) ◽  
pp. 51-57 ◽  
Author(s):  
György Darvas ◽  
Tamás F. Farkas
Keyword(s):  
Physical Properties ◽  
Internal Structure ◽  
General Public ◽  
Graphical Representation ◽  
Basic Properties ◽  
Graphic Artist ◽  
Subatomic Particles ◽  
Graphic Illustration ◽  
Physical Objects

The paper presents remarks by a physicist and a graphic artist on an artwork series produced by the artist. They associate the colors and twists represented in these graphics with the properties of subatomic particles—their structures and connections. The authors use graphical representation to visualize the inner structure of atoms, the classification of quarks and the metaphorical names of abstract physical properties. No textbooks that make visible these basic properties by means of art are currently available. Artistic visualization brings these “mysterious” physical objects closer to the understanding of students and the general public and leaves physicists better able to discover new secrets of the internal structure of quarks and their properties.

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