scholarly journals Cereulide Synthetase Acquisition and Loss Events within the Evolutionary History of Group III Bacillus cereus Sensu Lato Facilitate the Transition between Emetic and Diarrheal Foodborne Pathogens

mBio ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 11 (4) ◽  
Author(s):  
Laura M. Carroll ◽  
Martin Wiedmann
Keyword(s):  
Bacillus Cereus ◽  
Foodborne Pathogens ◽  
Evolutionary History ◽  
Reference Genome ◽  
Genomic Diversity ◽  
Whole Genome ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Group Iii ◽  
History Of ◽  
Highest Posterior Density

ABSTRACT Cereulide-producing members of Bacillus cereus sensu lato group III (also known as emetic B. cereus) possess cereulide synthetase, a plasmid-encoded, nonribosomal peptide synthetase encoded by the ces gene cluster. Despite the documented risks that cereulide-producing strains pose to public health, the level of genomic diversity encompassed by emetic B. cereus has never been evaluated at a whole-genome scale. Here, we employ a phylogenomic approach to characterize group III B. cereus sensu lato genomes which possess ces (ces positive) alongside their closely related, ces-negative counterparts (i) to assess the genomic diversity encompassed by emetic B. cereus and (ii) to identify potential ces loss and/or gain events within the evolutionary history of the high-risk and medically relevant sequence type (ST) 26 lineage often associated with emetic foodborne illness. Using all publicly available ces-positive group III B. cereus sensu lato genomes and the ces-negative genomes interspersed among them (n = 159), we show that emetic B. cereus is not clonal; rather, multiple lineages within group III harbor cereulide-producing strains, all of which share an ancestor incapable of producing cereulide (posterior probability = 0.86 to 0.89). Members of ST 26 share an ancestor that existed circa 1748 (95% highest posterior density [HPD] interval = 1246.89 to 1915.64) and first acquired the ability to produce cereulide before 1876 (95% HPD = 1641.43 to 1946.70). Within ST 26 alone, two subsequent ces gain events were observed, as well as three ces loss events, including among isolates responsible for B. cereus sensu lato toxicoinfection (i.e., “diarrheal” illness). IMPORTANCE B. cereus is responsible for thousands of cases of foodborne disease each year worldwide, causing two distinct forms of illness: (i) intoxication via cereulide (i.e., emetic syndrome) or (ii) toxicoinfection via multiple enterotoxins (i.e., diarrheal syndrome). Here, we show that emetic B. cereus is not a clonal, homogenous unit that resulted from a single cereulide synthetase gain event followed by subsequent proliferation; rather, cereulide synthetase acquisition and loss is a dynamic, ongoing process that occurs across lineages, allowing some group III B. cereus sensu lato populations to oscillate between diarrheal and emetic foodborne pathogens over the course of their evolutionary histories. We also highlight the care that must be taken when selecting a reference genome for whole-genome sequencing-based investigation of emetic B. cereus sensu lato outbreaks, since some reference genome selections can lead to a confounding loss of resolution and potentially hinder epidemiological investigations.

scholarly journals Cereulide synthetase acquisition and loss events within the evolutionary history of Group III Bacillus cereus sensu lato facilitate the transition between emetic and diarrheal foodborne pathogen

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Laura M. Carroll ◽  
Martin Wiedmann
Keyword(s):  
Bacillus Cereus ◽  
Evolutionary History ◽  
Common Ancestor ◽  
Reference Genome ◽  
Foodborne Pathogen ◽  
Genomic Diversity ◽  
Whole Genome ◽  
Group Iii ◽  
History Of ◽  
Bacillus Cereus Sensu Lato

AbstractCereulide-producing members of Bacillus cereus sensu lato (B. cereus s.l.) Group III, also known as “emetic B. cereus”, possess cereulide synthetase, a plasmid-encoded, non-ribosomal peptide synthetase encoded by the ces gene cluster. Despite the documented risks that cereulide-producing strains pose to public health, the level of genomic diversity encompassed by “emetic B. cereus” has never been evaluated at a whole-genome scale. Here, we employ a phylogenomic approach to characterize Group III B. cereus s.l. genomes which possess ces (ces-positive) alongside their closely related ces-negative counterparts to (i) assess the genomic diversity encompassed by “emetic B. cereus”, and (ii) identify potential ces loss and/or gain events within the evolutionary history of the high-risk and medically relevant sequence type (ST) 26 lineage often associated with emetic foodborne illness. Using all publicly available ces-positive Group III B. cereus s.l. genomes and the ces-negative genomes interspersed among them (n = 150), we show that “emetic B. cereus” is not clonal; rather, multiple lineages within Group III harbor cereulide-producing strains, all of which share a common ancestor incapable of producing cereulide (posterior probability [PP] 0.86-0.89). The ST 26 common ancestor was predicted to have emerged as ces-negative (PP 0.60-0.93) circa 1904 (95% highest posterior density [HPD] interval 1837.1-1957.8) and first acquired the ability to produce cereulide before 1931 (95% HPD 1893.2-1959.0). Three subsequent ces loss events within ST 26 were observed, including among isolates responsible for B. cereus s.l. toxicoinfection (i.e., “diarrheal” illness).Importance“B. cereus” is responsible for thousands of cases of foodborne disease each year worldwide, causing two distinct forms of illness: (i) intoxication via cereulide (i.e., “emetic” syndrome) or (ii) toxicoinfection via multiple enterotoxins (i.e., “diarrheal” syndrome). Here, we show that “emetic B. cereus” is not a clonal, homogenous unit that resulted from a single cereulide synthetase gain event followed by subsequent proliferation; rather, cereulide synthetase acquisition and loss is a dynamic, ongoing process that occurs across lineages, allowing some Group III B. cereus s.l. populations to oscillate between diarrheal and emetic foodborne pathogen over the course of their evolutionary histories. We also highlight the care that must be taken when selecting a reference genome for whole-genome sequencing-based investigation of emetic B. cereus s.l. outbreaks, as some reference genome selections can lead to a confounding loss of resolution and potentially hinder epidemiological investigations.

scholarly journals Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex lineage 5 exhibits high levels of within-lineage genomic diversity and differing gene content compared to the type strain H37Rv

2021 ◽  
Vol 7 (7) ◽  
Author(s):  
C. N'Dira Sanoussi ◽  
Mireia Coscolla ◽  
Boatema Ofori-Anyinam ◽  
Isaac Darko Otchere ◽  
Martin Antonio ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Mycobacterium Tuberculosis ◽  
Type Species ◽  
Reference Genome ◽  
De Novo ◽  
Genomic Diversity ◽  
Gene Content ◽  
Whole Genome Sequencing Data ◽  
Whole Genome ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Link Type

Pathogens of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) are considered to be monomorphic, with little gene content variation between strains. Nevertheless, several genotypic and phenotypic factors separate strains of the different MTBC lineages (L), especially L5 and L6 (traditionally termed Mycobacterium africanum ) strains, from each other. However, this genome variability and gene content, especially of L5 strains, has not been fully explored and may be important for pathobiology and current approaches for genomic analysis of MTBC strains, including transmission studies. By comparing the genomes of 355 L5 clinical strains (including 3 complete genomes and 352 Illumina whole-genome sequenced isolates) to each other and to H37Rv, we identified multiple genes that were differentially present or absent between H37Rv and L5 strains. Additionally, considerable gene content variability was found across L5 strains, including a split in the L5.3 sub-lineage into L5.3.1 and L5.3.2. These gene content differences had a small knock-on effect on transmission cluster estimation, with clustering rates influenced by the selected reference genome, and with potential overestimation of recent transmission when using H37Rv as the reference genome. We conclude that full capture of the gene diversity, especially high-resolution outbreak analysis, requires a variation of the single H37Rv-centric reference genome mapping approach currently used in most whole-genome sequencing data analysis pipelines. Moreover, the high within-lineage gene content variability suggests that the pan-genome of M. tuberculosis is at least several kilobases larger than previously thought, implying that a concatenated or reference-free genome assembly (de novo) approach may be needed for particular questions.

scholarly journals Ancient Evolution and Dispersion of Human Papillomavirus 58 Variants

2017 ◽  
Vol 91 (21) ◽  
Author(s):  
Zigui Chen ◽  
Wendy C. S. Ho ◽  
Siaw Shi Boon ◽  
Priscilla T. Y. Law ◽  
Martin C. W. Chan ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Human Papillomavirus ◽  
Gene Flow ◽  
East Asia ◽  
Evolutionary History ◽  
Homo Sapiens ◽  
Human Papillomaviruses ◽  
Oncogenic Potential ◽  
Content Type ◽  
History Of ◽  
Highest Posterior Density

ABSTRACT Human papillomavirus 58 (HPV58) is found in 10 to 18% of cervical cancers in East Asia but is rather uncommon elsewhere. The distribution and oncogenic potential of HPV58 variants appear to be heterogeneous, since the E7 T20I/G63S variant is more prevalent in East Asia and confers a 7- to 9-fold-higher risk of cervical precancer and cancer. However, the underlying genomic mechanisms that explain the geographic and carcinogenic diversity of HPV58 variants are still poorly understood. In this study, we used a combination of phylogenetic analyses and bioinformatics to investigate the deep evolutionary history of HPV58 complete genome variants. The initial splitting of HPV58 variants was estimated to occur 478,600 years ago (95% highest posterior density [HPD], 391,000 to 569,600 years ago). This divergence time is well within the era of speciation between Homo sapiens and Neanderthals/Denisovans and around three times longer than the modern Homo sapiens divergence times. The expansion of present-day variants in Eurasia could be the consequence of viral transmission from Neanderthals/Denisovans to non-African modern human populations through gene flow. A whole-genome sequence signature analysis identified 3 amino acid changes, 16 synonymous nucleotide changes, and a 12-bp insertion strongly associated with the E7 T20I/G63S variant that represents the A3 sublineage and carries higher carcinogenetic potential. Compared with the capsid proteins, the oncogenes E7 and E6 had increased substitution rates indicative of higher selection pressure. These data provide a comprehensive evolutionary history and genomic basis of HPV58 variants to assist further investigation of carcinogenic association and the development of diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. IMPORTANCE Papillomaviruses (PVs) are an ancient and heterogeneous group of double-stranded DNA viruses that preferentially infect the cutaneous and mucocutaneous epithelia of vertebrates. Persistent infection by specific oncogenic human papillomaviruses (HPVs), including HPV58, has been established as the primary cause of cervical cancer. In this work, we reveal the complex evolutionary history of HPV58 variants that explains the heterogeneity of oncogenic potential and geographic distribution. Our data suggest that HPV58 variants may have coevolved with archaic hominins and dispersed across the planet through host interbreeding and gene flow. Certain genes and codons of HPV58 variants representing higher carcinogenic potential and/or that are under positive selection may have important implications for viral host specificity, pathogenesis, and disease prevention.

scholarly journals Whole-Genome Characterization of Bacillus cereus Associated with Specific Disease Manifestations

2017 ◽  
Vol 86 (2) ◽  
Author(s):  
T. Chang ◽  
J. W. Rosch ◽  
Z. Gu ◽  
H. Hakim ◽  
C. Hewitt ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Bacillus Cereus ◽  
Clinical Manifestations ◽  
Invasive Disease ◽  
Whole Genome ◽  
Skin Infections ◽  
Virulence Determinants ◽  
Bacterial Strains ◽  
Whole Genome Analysis ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Superficial Skin

ABSTRACTBacillus cereusremains an important cause of infections, particularly in immunocompromised hosts. While typically associated with enteric infections, disease manifestations can be quite diverse and include skin infections, bacteremia, pneumonia, and meningitis. Whether there are any genetic correlates of bacterial strains with particular clinical manifestations remains unknown. To address this gap in understanding, we undertook whole-genome analysis ofB. cereusstrains isolated from patients with a range of disease manifestations, including noninvasive colonizing disease, superficial skin infections, and invasive bacteremia. Interestingly, strains involved in skin infection tended to form a distinct genetic cluster compared to isolates associated with invasive disease. Other disease manifestations, despite not being exclusively clustered, nonetheless had unique genetic features. The unique features associated with the specific types of infections ranged from traditional virulence determinants to metabolic pathways and gene regulators. These data represent the largest genetic analysis to date of pathogenicB. cereusisolates with associated clinical parameters.

scholarly journals Evolution of the U.S. Biological Select AgentRathayibacter toxicus

mBio ◽  
2018 ◽  
Vol 9 (4) ◽  
Author(s):  
Edward W. Davis ◽  
Javier F. Tabima ◽  
Alexandra J. Weisberg ◽  
Lucas Dantas Lopes ◽  
Michele S. Wiseman ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Genetic Diversity ◽  
Adaptive Immune System ◽  
The United States ◽  
Genomic Diversity ◽  
Data Set ◽  
Important Species ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Low Genetic Diversity ◽  
History Of ◽  
Short Palindromic Repeat

ABSTRACTRathayibacter toxicusis a species of Gram-positive, corynetoxin-producing bacteria that causes annual ryegrass toxicity, a disease often fatal to grazing animals. A phylogenomic approach was employed to model the evolution ofR. toxicusto explain the low genetic diversity observed among isolates collected during a 30-year period of sampling in three regions of Australia, gain insight into the taxonomy ofRathayibacter, and provide a framework for studying these bacteria. Analyses of a data set of more than 100 sequencedRathayibactergenomes indicated thatRathayibacterforms nine species-level groups.R. toxicusis the most genetically distant, and evidence suggested that this species experienced a dramatic event in its evolution. Its genome is significantly reduced in size but is colinear to those of sister species. Moreover,R. toxicushas low intergroup genomic diversity and almost no intragroup genomic diversity between ecologically separated isolates.R. toxicusis the only species of the genus that encodes a clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR) locus and that is known to host a bacteriophage parasite. The spacers, which represent a chronological history of infections, were characterized for information on past events. We propose a three-stage process that emphasizes the importance of the bacteriophage and CRISPR in the genome reduction and low genetic diversity of theR. toxicusspecies.IMPORTANCERathayibacter toxicusis a toxin-producing species found in Australia and is often fatal to grazing animals. The threat of introduction of the species into the United States led to its inclusion in the Federal Select Agent Program, which makesR. toxicusa highly regulated species. This work provides novel insights into the evolution ofR. toxicus.R. toxicusis the only species in the genus to have acquired a CRISPR adaptive immune system to protect against bacteriophages. Results suggest that coexistence with the bacteriophage NCPPB3778 led to the massive shrinkage of theR. toxicusgenome, species divergence, and the maintenance of low genetic diversity in extant bacterial groups. This work contributes to an understanding of the evolution and ecology of an agriculturally important species of bacteria.

scholarly journals Selection for Antimicrobial Resistance in Foodborne Pathogens through Exposure to UV Light and Nonthermal Atmospheric Plasma Decontamination Techniques

2020 ◽  
Vol 86 (9) ◽  
Author(s):  
Adrián Álvarez-Molina ◽  
María de Toro ◽  
Lorena Ruiz ◽  
Mercedes López ◽  
Miguel Prieto ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Foodborne Pathogens ◽  
Uv Light ◽  
Brain Heart Infusion ◽  
Atmospheric Plasma ◽  
Cross Resistance ◽  
Whole Genome ◽  
Whole Genome Analysis ◽  
Resistant Variant ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Uv C

ABSTRACT This study was aimed at assessing whether the repeated exposure of 12 strains of Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, and Listeria monocytogenes to alternative nonthermal decontamination techniques with UV light (UV-C) and nonthermal atmospheric plasma (NTAP) may cause the emergence of variants showing increased resistance to clinically relevant antibiotics (ampicillin, cefotaxime, ciprofloxacin, gentamicin, streptomycin, tetracycline, erythromycin, vancomycin, and colistin). UV-C and NTAP treatments were applied on the surface of inoculated brain heart infusion (BHI) agar plates. Survivors were recovered and after 24 h of growth in BHI broth were again subjected to the decontamination treatment; this was repeated for 10 consecutive cycles. A total of 174 strain/decontamination technique/antibiotic combinations were tested, and 12 variant strains with increased resistance to one of the antibiotics studied were identified, with the increases in the MICs in Mueller-Hinton broth ranging from 2- to 256-fold. The variant strains of Salmonella spp. isolated were further characterized through phenotypic screenings and whole-genome sequencing (WGS) analyses. Most changes in susceptibility were observed for antibiotics that act at the level of protein synthesis (aminoglycosides, tetracyclines, and glycylcyclines) or DNA replication (fluoroquinolones), as well as for polymyxins. No changes in resistance to β-lactams were detected. WGS analyses showed the occurrence of sequence alterations in some antibiotic cellular targets (e.g., gyrA for ciprofloxacin-resistant variants, rpsL for a streptomycin-resistant variant), accompanied by variations in stress response regulators and membrane transporters likely involved in the nonselective efflux of antibiotics, which altogether resulted in a low- to medium-level increase in microbial resistance to several antibiotics. IMPORTANCE The emergence and spread of antibiotic resistance along the food chain can be influenced by the different antimicrobial strategies used from farm to fork. This study evidences that two novel, not yet widely used, nonthermal microbial decontamination techniques, UV light and nonthermal atmospheric plasma, can select variants with increased resistance to various clinically relevant antibiotics, such as ciprofloxacin, streptomycin, tetracycline, and erythromycin. Whole-genome analysis of the resistant variants obtained for Salmonella spp. allowed identification of the genetic changes responsible for the observed phenotypes and suggested that some antimicrobial classes are more susceptible to the cross-resistance phenomena observed. This information is relevant, since these novel decontamination techniques are being proposed as possible alternative green techniques for the decontamination of environments and equipment in food and clinical settings.

scholarly journals Culicidae evolutionary history focusing on the Culicinae subfamily based on mitochondrial phylogenomics

2020 ◽  
Vol 10 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Alexandre Freitas da Silva ◽  
Laís Ceschini Machado ◽  
Marcia Bicudo de Paula ◽  
Carla Júlia da Silva Pessoa Vieira ◽  
Roberta Vieira de Morais Bronzoni ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Data Mining ◽  
Evolutionary History ◽  
Mosquito Species ◽  
Whole Genome ◽  
Lack Of Information ◽  
Fundamental Information ◽  
History Of ◽  
Medical Importance ◽  
Low Coverage

Abstract Mosquitoes are insects of medical importance due their role as vectors of different pathogens to humans. There is a lack of information about the evolutionary history and phylogenetic positioning of the majority of mosquito species. Here we characterized the mitogenomes of mosquito species through low-coverage whole genome sequencing and data mining. A total of 37 draft mitogenomes of different species were assembled from which 16 are newly-sequenced species. We datamined additional 49 mosquito mitogenomes, and together with our 37 mitogenomes, we reconstructed the evolutionary history of 86 species including representatives from 15 genera and 7 tribes. Our results showed that most of the species clustered in clades with other members of their own genus with exception of Aedes genus which was paraphyletic. We confirmed the monophyletic status of the Mansoniini tribe including both Coquillettidia and Mansonia genus. The Aedeomyiini and Uranotaeniini were consistently recovered as basal to other tribes in the subfamily Culicinae, although the exact relationships among these tribes differed between analyses. These results demonstrate that low-coverage sequencing is effective to recover mitogenomes, establish phylogenetic knowledge and hence generate basic fundamental information that will help in the understanding of the role of these species as pathogen vectors.

scholarly journals Evolutionary history of Tibetans inferred from whole-genome sequencing

PLoS Genetics ◽  
2017 ◽  
Vol 13 (4) ◽  
pp. e1006675 ◽  
Author(s):  
Hao Hu ◽  
Nayia Petousi ◽  
Gustavo Glusman ◽  
Yao Yu ◽  
Ryan Bohlender ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Whole Genome Sequencing ◽  
Genome Sequencing ◽  
Evolutionary History ◽  
Whole Genome ◽  
History Of

scholarly journals Human Origin for Livestock-Associated Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus

mBio ◽  
2012 ◽  
Vol 3 (2) ◽  
Author(s):  
J. Ross Fitzgerald
Keyword(s):  
Staphylococcus Aureus ◽  
Evolutionary History ◽  
Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus ◽  
Agricultural Practices ◽  
Methicillin Resistant ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Zoonotic Infections ◽  
Ancestral Origin ◽  
Important Study ◽  
History Of

ABSTRACT Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a major cause of human morbidity and mortality worldwide. The emergence in the last decade of a livestock-associated MRSA (LA-MRSA) clone which also has the capacity to cause zoonotic infections in humans has raised important questions regarding its origin and its potential to cause human epidemics. An important study by L. B. Price et al. [mBio 3(1):e00305-11, 2012] provides evidence for a human ancestral origin for LA-MRSA, raising concerns about agricultural practices that may have contributed to its emergence and expansion. The study highlights the potential for comparative whole-genome sequencing of closely related strains to provide valuable insights into the evolutionary history of bacterial pathogens.

scholarly journals Separate F-Type Plasmids Have Shaped the Evolution of the H30 Subclone of Escherichia coli Sequence Type 131

mSphere ◽  
2016 ◽  
Vol 1 (4) ◽  
Author(s):  
Timothy J. Johnson ◽  
Jessica L. Danzeisen ◽  
Bonnie Youmans ◽  
Kyle Case ◽  
Katharine Llop ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Escherichia Coli ◽  
Real Time ◽  
Single Molecule ◽  
Convergent Evolution ◽  
Evolutionary History ◽  
Gene Clusters ◽  
Content Type ◽  
E Coli ◽  
History Of ◽  
Evolutionary Success

ABSTRACT A clonal lineage of Escherichia coli known as ST131 has emerged as a dominating strain type causing extraintestinal infections in humans. The evolutionary history of ST131 E. coli is now well understood. However, the role of plasmids in ST131’s evolutionary history is poorly defined. This study utilized real-time, single-molecule sequencing to compare plasmids from various current and historical lineages of ST131. From this work, it was determined that a series of plasmid gains, losses, and recombinational events has led to the currently circulating plasmids of ST131 strains. These plasmids appear to have evolved to acquire similar gene clusters on multiple occasions, suggesting possible plasmid-mediated convergent evolution leading to evolutionary success. These plasmids also appear to be better suited to exist in specific strains of ST131 due to coadaptive mutations. Overall, a series of events has enabled the evolution of ST131 plasmids, possibly contributing to the lineage’s success. The extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli (ExPEC) H30 subclone of sequence type 131 (ST131-H30) has emerged abruptly as a dominant lineage of ExPEC responsible for human disease. The ST131-H30 lineage has been well described phylogenetically, yet its plasmid complement is not fully understood. Here, single-molecule, real-time sequencing was used to generate the complete plasmid sequences of ST131-H30 isolates and those belonging to other ST131 clades. Comparative analyses revealed separate F-type plasmids that have shaped the evolution of the main fluoroquinolone-resistant ST131-H30 clades. Specifically, an F1:A2:B20 plasmid is strongly associated with the H30R/C1 clade, whereas an F2:A1:B− plasmid is associated with the H30Rx/C2 clade. A series of plasmid gene losses, gains, and rearrangements involving IS26 likely led to the current plasmid complements within each ST131-H30 sublineage, which contain several overlapping gene clusters with putative functions in virulence and fitness, suggesting plasmid-mediated convergent evolution. Evidence suggests that the H30Rx/C2-associated F2:A1:B− plasmid type was present in strains ancestral to the acquisition of fluoroquinolone resistance and prior to the introduction of a multidrug resistance-encoding gene cassette harboring bla CTX-M-15. In vitro experiments indicated a host strain-independent low frequency of plasmid transfer, differential levels of plasmid stability even between closely related ST131-H30 strains, and possible epistasis for carriage of these plasmids within the H30R/Rx lineages. IMPORTANCE A clonal lineage of Escherichia coli known as ST131 has emerged as a dominating strain type causing extraintestinal infections in humans. The evolutionary history of ST131 E. coli is now well understood. However, the role of plasmids in ST131’s evolutionary history is poorly defined. This study utilized real-time, single-molecule sequencing to compare plasmids from various current and historical lineages of ST131. From this work, it was determined that a series of plasmid gains, losses, and recombinational events has led to the currently circulating plasmids of ST131 strains. These plasmids appear to have evolved to acquire similar gene clusters on multiple occasions, suggesting possible plasmid-mediated convergent evolution leading to evolutionary success. These plasmids also appear to be better suited to exist in specific strains of ST131 due to coadaptive mutations. Overall, a series of events has enabled the evolution of ST131 plasmids, possibly contributing to the lineage’s success.

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