Until now we have considered only 11-year variations in solar activity and climate. The sun also varies on longer time scales. Since these variations seem to parallel a number of climatic changes, the sun may contribute to climatic changes on time scales of decades to centuries. We now examine several solar indices that vary in parallel with Earth’s climate change. There exist plausible arguments that these indices are proxy indicators of the sun’s radiative output, but there is no proof. We now present the strongest correlations we have seen for a sun/climate connection. First, as it is the most widely publicized index, we consider the mean level of solar activity. In 1801 Herschel first proposed a relationship between climate and the level of solar activity. Second, we examine solar cycle lengths, which have been studied sporadically since 1905. Third, we look at two closely related indices—sunspot structure and sunspot decay rates. Fourth, we consider variations in the solar rotation rate. Lastly, we examine some major solar and climatic events of the last thousand years to see if any indications of solar influence are evident on climate. Although we present the solar-induced changes as arising from total-irradiance variations, as discussed earlier spectral-irradiance changes may be the primary driver. When Rudolf Wolf reconstructed solar activity based on historical observations of sunspots, he found an 11-year cycle going back to at least 1700. In 1853 Wolf also claimed that there is an 83-year sunspot cycle. This longer term variation becomes evident simply by smoothing the data, as in Socher’s 1939 example. Wolf’s original discovery of an 83-year cycle was forgotten, but the long cycle was rediscovered by H. H. Turner, W. Schmidt, H. H. Clayton, and probably others. After W. Gleissberg also discovered this 80- to 90-year cycle around 1938, he published so much material on the subject that ever since it has been called the Gleissberg cycle. All these rediscoveries of the same phenomenon indicate that the 80- to 90-year cycle may be real but not strictly periodic. Rather, the cycle may be a “persistency” with an 80- to 90-year period. During this period solar activity is quite powerful but fails to exhibit a single sharp spectral peak.
Genetic Diversity Assessment and Marker-Assisted Selection in Crops
