scholarly journals Measuring open defecation in India using survey questions: evidence from a randomised survey experiment

BMJ Open ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 9 (9) ◽  
pp. e030152 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sangita Vyas ◽  
Nikhil Srivastav ◽  
Divya Mary ◽  
Neeta Goel ◽  
Sujatha Srinivasan ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Question Type ◽  
Household Member ◽  
Rural India ◽  
Open Defecation ◽  
Indian States ◽  
Household Level ◽  
Individual Level ◽  
Percentage Points ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Latrine Use

ObjectivesTo investigate differences in reported open defecation between a question about latrine use or open defecation for every household member and a household-level question.SettingRural India is home to most of the world’s open defecation. India’s Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) 2015–2016 estimates that 54% of households in rural India defecate in the open. This measure is based on a question asking about the behaviour of all household members in one question. Yet, studies in rural India find substantial open defecation among individuals living in households with latrines, suggesting that household-level questions underestimate true open defecation.ParticipantsIn 2018, we randomly assigned latrine-owning households in rural parts of four Indian states to receive one of two survey modules measuring sanitation behaviour. 1215 households were asked about latrine use or open defecation individually for every household member. 1216 households were asked the household-level question used in India’s DHS: what type of facility do members of the household usually use?ResultsWe compare reported open defecation between households asked the individual-level questions and those asked the household-level question. Using two methods for comparing open defecation by question type, the individual-level question found 20–21 (95% CI 16 to 25 for both estimates) percentage points more open defecation than the household-level question, among all households, and 28–29 (95% CI 22 to 35 for both estimates) percentage points more open defecation among households that received assistance to construct their latrines.ConclusionsWe provide the first evidence that individual-level questions find more open defecation than household-level questions. Because reducing open defecation in India is essential to meeting the Sustainable Development Goals, and exposure to open defecation has consequences for child mortality and development, it is essential to accurately monitor its progress.Trial registration numberRegistry for International Development Impact Evaluations (5b55458ca54d1).

scholarly journals Intra–and inter–household network capital

2020 ◽  
Vol 30 (4) ◽  
pp. 89-106
Author(s):  
Endre Sik
Keyword(s):  
Theoretical Model ◽  
Household Member ◽  
Household Level ◽  
Individual Level ◽  
Household Model ◽  
Household Members ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Reproductive Processes ◽  
Rich Household ◽  
Empirical Analyses

The aim of this paper is to outline the theoretical model of an empirical piece of research we plan to carry out in the next two years. Our model emphasizes the intertwined nature of intra-household processes such as production, consumption, and reproduction. As for intra-household processes, our approach treats household members not as isolated actors but as interrelated within the household. The focus of our analysis is network capital, which (1) on the individual level expresses the activity of a household member in interhousehold networks (e.g. contacting relatives), (2) on the intra-household relational level assesses the position of household members as regards each other (relations among network-poor and network-rich household members), and (3) on the household level refers to the aggregated value and structure of the households’ network capital (e.g. network-poor and network-rich households). The structure of the paper is as follows: after introducing our household concept in general, we outline the alternative concepts of household as a firm and the “container” of reproductive processes. In the next chapters we outline the concept of network capital, and operationalize this idea as an intertwined model of intra- and inter-household processes. Next, we develop an extended household model and incorporate our network capital approach into this. Finally, we outline the next steps we intend to take towards empirically verifying our model by selecting a “best of” collection of previous empirical analyses about inter- and intra-household processes.

scholarly journals Understanding Food Waste, Food Insecurity, and the Gap between the Two: A Nationwide Cross-Sectional Study in Saudi Arabia

Foods ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 10 (3) ◽  
pp. 681
Author(s):  
Nora A. Althumiri ◽  
Mada H. Basyouni ◽  
Ali F. Duhaim ◽  
Norah AlMousa ◽  
Mohammed F. AlJuwaysim ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Saudi Arabia ◽  
Food Insecurity ◽  
Food Waste ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Household Level ◽  
Individual Level ◽  
Factors Associated ◽  
Household Factors ◽  
Cooked Food ◽  
The Individual

Background: Food waste and food insecurity may co-exist in various balances in developing and developed countries. This study aimed to explore the levels of food waste and food insecurity, the factors associated with them, and their relationships at the household and individual levels in Saudi Arabia. Methods: This study was a nationwide cross-sectional survey conducted via computer-assisted phone interviews in January 2021. Quota sampling was utilized to generate balanced distributions of participants by gender across all the administrative regions of Saudi Arabia. Data collection included household demographics, food waste and disposal, the Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES), and the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS). Results: Out of the 2807 potential participants contacted, 2454 (87.4%) completed the interview. The mean age was 31.4 (SD = 11.7; range = 18–99) and 50.1% were female. The weighted prevalence of uncooked food waste in the last four weeks was 63.6% and the cooked food waste was 74.4%. However, the food insecurity weighted prevalence at the individual level (FIES) was 6.8%. In terms of food insecurity at the household level (HFIAS), 13.3% were in the “severely food insecure” category. Moreover, this study found that “moderately food insecure” households were associated with an increased likelihood to waste uncooked food (relative risk (RR) = 1.25), and the “mildly food insecure” (RR = 1.21) and “moderately food insecure” (RR = 1.17) households were associated with an increased likelihood to waste cooked food. However, “food secure” households were associated with a decreased likelihood to waste cooked food (RR = 0.56). Finally, this study identified four household factors associated with food waste and three household factors that were associated with “severe food insecurity.” Conclusions: This first national coverage study to explore food waste and food insecurity at the individual level and household level, identified household factors associated with food waste and food insecurity and identified new associations between food waste and food insecurity in Saudi Arabia. The associations found between food waste and food insecurity are potential areas of intervention to reduce both food waste and food insecurity at the same time, toward achieving the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) targets related to food waste and food security.

scholarly journals Urban–Rural Disparities in the Magnitude and Determinants of Stunting among Children under Five in Tanzania: Based on Tanzania Demographic and Health Surveys 1991–2016

2021 ◽  
Vol 18 (10) ◽  
pp. 5184
Author(s):  
Wenjun Zhu ◽  
Si Zhu ◽  
Bruno F. Sunguya ◽  
Jiayan Huang
Keyword(s):  
Urban Areas ◽  
Health Surveys ◽  
Demographic And Health Surveys ◽  
Household Level ◽  
Individual Level ◽  
Child Stunting ◽  
Rural And Urban Areas ◽  
Rural And Urban ◽  
Urban Rural ◽  
The Individual

Our study aims to examine the disparity of under-5 child stunting prevalence between urban and rural areas of Tanzania in the past three decades, and to explore factors affecting the rural–urban disparity. Secondary analyses of Tanzania Demographic and Health Surveys (TDHS) data drawn from 1991–1992, 1996, 1999, 2004–2005, 2009–2010, and 2015–2016 surveys were conducted. Under-5 child stunting prevalence was calculated separately for rural and urban children and its decline trends were examined by chi-square tests. Descriptive analyses were used to present the individual-level, household-level, and societal-level characteristics of children, while multivariable logistic regression analyses were performed to examine determinants of stunting in rural and urban areas, respectively. Additive interaction effects were estimated between residence and other covariates. The results showed that total stunting prevalence was declining in Tanzania, but urban–rural disparity has widened since the decline was slower in the rural area. No interaction effect existed between residence and other determinants, and the urban–rural disparity was mainly caused by the discrepancy of the individual-level and household-level factors between rural and urban households. As various types of determinants exist, multisector nutritional intervention strategies are required to address the child stunting problem. Meanwhile, the intervention should focus on targeting vulnerable children, rather than implementing different policies in rural and urban areas.

scholarly journals Shifting social norms to reduce open defecation in rural India

2020 ◽  
pp. 1-25
Author(s):  
VARUN GAURI ◽  
TASMIA RAHMAN ◽  
IMAN K. SEN
Keyword(s):  
Social Norms ◽  
Large Scale ◽  
Low Cost ◽  
Uttar Pradesh ◽  
Rural India ◽  
Cost Information ◽  
Open Defecation ◽  
Information Campaigns ◽  
Development Interventions ◽  
Latrine Use

Abstract Toilet ownership in India has grown in recent years, but open defecation can persist even when rural households own latrines. There are at least two pathways through which social norms inhibit the use of toilets in rural India: (1) beliefs/expectations that others do not use toilets or latrines or find open defecation unacceptable; and (2) beliefs about ritual notions of purity that dissociate latrines from cleanliness. A survey in Uttar Pradesh, India, finds a positive correlation between latrine use and social norms at baseline. To confront these, an information campaign was piloted to test the effectiveness of rebranding latrine use and promoting positive social norms. The intervention targeted mental models by rebranding latrine use and associating it with cleanliness, and it made information about growing latrine use among latrine owners more salient. Following the intervention, open defecation practices went down across all treatment households, with the average latrine use score in treatment villages increasing by up to 11% relative to baseline. Large improvements were also observed in pro-latrine beliefs. This suggests that low-cost information campaigns can effectively improve pro-latrine beliefs and practices, as well as shift perceptions of why many people still find open defecation acceptable. Measuring social norms as described can help diagnose barriers to reducing open defecation, contribute to the quality of large-scale surveys and make development interventions more sustainable.

Redistribution under the Social Security benefit formula at the individual and household levels, 1992 and 2004

2012 ◽  
Vol 12 (1) ◽  
pp. 1-27 ◽  
Author(s):  
ALAN L. GUSTMAN ◽  
THOMAS L. STEINMEIER ◽  
NAHID TABATABAI
Keyword(s):  
Social Security ◽  
Labor Force Participation ◽  
Social Security Benefit ◽  
Household Level ◽  
Individual Level ◽  
The Social ◽  
High Earning ◽  
Using Data ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Over Time

AbstractStudies using data from the early 1990s suggested that while the progressive Social Security benefit formula succeeded in redistributing benefits from individuals with high earnings to individuals with low earnings, it was much less successful in redistributing benefits from households with high earnings to households with low earnings. Wives often earned much less than their husbands. As a result, much of the redistribution at the individual level was effectively from high earning husbands to their own lower earning wives. In addition, spouse and survivor benefits accrue disproportionately to women from high income households. Both factors mitigate redistribution at the household level. It has been argued that with the increase in the labor force participation and earnings of women, Social Security now should do a better job of redistributing benefits at the household level. To be sure, when we compare outcomes for a cohort with a household member age 51 to 56 in 1992 with those from a cohort born twelve years later, redistribution at the household level has increased over time. Nevertheless, as of 2004 there still is substantially less redistribution of benefits from high to low earning households than from high to low earning individuals.

Determining the odds of employment in Pakistan

2019 ◽  
Vol 12 (2) ◽  
pp. 229-241
Author(s):  
Izza Aftab ◽  
Umair Mazher
Keyword(s):  
Economic Geography ◽  
Google Earth ◽  
Living Standard ◽  
Asset Ownership ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Household Level ◽  
Individual Level ◽  
Income Sources ◽  
Jobless Growth ◽  
The Individual

Purpose The paper aims to identify the determinants of employment in Pakistan. In light of the jobless growth Pakistan has experienced starting from 2000, this is a valid concern. The paper discusses the structural relationship between employment and growth in Pakistan and analyzes it empirically within an economic geography framework. Design/methodology/approach The paper applies a Logit regression analysis to data from Pakistan Social and Living Standard Measurement Survey for the years 2010, 2012 and 2014. While this survey is published annually, the paper uses data at the district level, which is available only every alternate year. Data are collected at the individual level and can be mapped back to the household level. Each wave of data covers at least 70,000 households. The survey provides data on employment status, health, education, sanitation, economic situation and asset ownership. The analysis is conducted using Stata. The paper uses computer vision to present and trace changing employment patterns in Pakistan over time. To do so, the paper uses MATLAB. The data are transformed to KMV format and the plotting is done using Google Earth. Findings The paper shows how household characteristics affect the odds of employment in Pakistan, finding evidence of provincial disparities. Moreover, the paper shows that non-wage income from assets reduces the odds of being employed. The paper identifies the various income thresholds for the five income sources examined to have an impact on the odds of employment. Originality/value The novelty of this research is the identification of the determinants of employment in Pakistan and their analysis from the perspective of economic geography. This paper should be useful for policymakers and international financial organizations concerned with structural change in Pakistan.

scholarly journals Sustainable Debt Policies of Indian State Governments

2018 ◽  
Vol 12 (2) ◽  
pp. 224-243 ◽  
Author(s):  
P.S. Renjith ◽  
K.R. Shanmugam
Keyword(s):  
Panel Data ◽  
Public Debt ◽  
Jel Classification ◽  
State Governments ◽  
Indian States ◽  
Individual Level ◽  
Panel Data Estimation ◽  
Sustainability Issue ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Debt Policies

This study analyses the public debt sustainability issue of 20 major Indian states using the Bohn framework for panel data from 2005–2006 to 2014–2015. It employs regular panel data estimation procedures and the penalized spline (p-spline) technique. The results indicate that the primary balance of state governments responds positively to high public debt, so debt policies are successful in sustaining the debt situation of Indian states as a whole. However, at the individual level, debt is sustainable only in 12 states; in 8 states, debt is unsustainable and so these states require corrective action. These findings may be useful to policymakers and other stakeholders to formulate appropriate strategies to improve the debt situation of Indian states. JEL Classification: E62, H63, H72, H740

AREA VARIATIONS IN USE OF MODERN CONTRACEPTION IN RURAL BANGLADESH: A MULTILEVEL ANALYSIS

1999 ◽  
Vol 31 (3) ◽  
pp. 327-341 ◽  
Author(s):  
NASHID KAMAL ◽  
ANDREW SLOGGETT ◽  
JOHN G. CLELAND
Keyword(s):  
Contraceptive Use ◽  
Household Head ◽  
Educational Levels ◽  
Household Level ◽  
Individual Level ◽  
Rural Bangladesh ◽  
Levels Of Use ◽  
Cluster Variation ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Different Levels

This study in Bangladesh found that inter-cluster variation in the use of modern reversible methods of contraception was significantly attributable to the educational levels of the female family planning workers working in the clusters. Women belonging to clusters served by educated workers had a higher probability of being contraceptive users than those whose workers had only completed primary education. At the household level, important determinants of use were socioeconomic status and religion. At the individual level, the woman being the wife of the household head and having some education were positively related to her being a user. The model also found that inter-household variation was significantly greater than inter-cluster variation. Finally, the study concludes that after controlling for various covariates at all three levels, the clusters do not have significantly different levels of use of modern reversible methods of contraception. There are, however, some special areas where contraceptive use is dramatically low, and these contribute significantly to the observed inter-cluster variation.

Enacting Border Governance through Multi-scalar Violence: Exclusion and discrimination of Rohingya people in Rakhine state

2021 ◽  
pp. 1-36
Author(s):  
NYANA YONI
Keyword(s):  
Family Relationships ◽  
Multiple Scales ◽  
National Level ◽  
Household Level ◽  
Individual Level ◽  
Political Boundary ◽  
Armed Violence ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Systemic Discrimination ◽  
Everyday Discrimination

Abstract While international focus has been on armed violence and Rohingya refugee flows from Rakhine state, this article pays attention to the myriad forms of ‘everyday discrimination’ that Muslim Rohingya people have experienced over a prolonged time. These forms of discrimination were observed by the author and reported by Rohingya informants in three areas of Rakhine state during research conducted in 2015. The article argues that systemic discrimination against Rohingya people can be understood as the violent enactment of bordering processes by both state and non-state actors at multiple scales, thus contributing to border governance. Bordering processes can be observed at the national level through the construction of citizenship in law and documentation; at the sub-national level through the restriction of travel and mobility at the township and village levels in Rakhine state; at the household level through household registrations and the control of births, marriages, and family relationships; as well as at the individual level through arrests, detention, and acts of violence. The border is enacted through such processes, with Rohingya people treated as an embodiment of both a political boundary between Myanmar and Bangladesh, and a social boundary constructing the Muslims as ‘fearsome and disgusting others’ by the country's non-Rohingya groups, particularly by the majority Bamar Buddhist population.

Costs of Ambulatory Medical Care Over the Long Term in the Quebec Medicare System

1995 ◽  
Vol 14 (2) ◽  
pp. 391-413 ◽  
Author(s):  
François Béland
Keyword(s):  
Medical Care ◽  
The Elderly ◽  
Fee For Service ◽  
Household Level ◽  
Individual Level ◽  
Universal Health Care System ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Ambulatory Medical Care ◽  
Number Of Individuals

ABSTRACTThis paper examines the question of whether the costs of ambulatory medical care (AMCC) in a universal health care system, such as that in Quebec, are related to household income. Questionnaires completed by 32,000 respondents for the Enquête Santé-Québec, 1987 (ESQ87) were matched with records in the Quebec Medicare system (La Régie d'Assurance-maladie du Québec, RAMQ). Approximately 90 per cent of the individuals were matched. Respondents living in remote regions were excluded from the study since a major portion of medical care in these regions is not reimbursed through fee for service; visits to physicians not on fee for service are not recorded in RAMQ files. At the individual level, the costs of ambulatory medical care over a two-year period decreased slightly with income, but at the household level, costs increased for those with higher incomes since the number of individuals in the households increased with income. These associations disappeared when the age of the respondents was taken into account. State of health is directly related to costs of care. Among health risks, availability of social support decreases costs of AMCC for both children and adults, while unemployment increases costs for adults only. Education of parents is linked with higher levels of costs for children, but AMCC decreases with increased education of adults. Finally, costs are lower for children in larger families compared with those in smaller families. To conclude, income does not affect costs of AMCC in Quebec, although variables associated with income, such as education, unemployment and family size, do have definite effects on costs. The absence of a link between psychological distress and costs for the elderly is a matter of concern since it confirms the difficulty the elderly experience in accessing psychiatric care.

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