scholarly journals Performance of college athletes on the 10-item word list of SCAT5

2018 ◽  
Vol 4 (1) ◽  
pp. e000412 ◽  
Author(s):  
Nicole Norheim ◽  
Alicia Kissinger-Knox ◽  
Megan Cheatham ◽  
Frank Webbe
Keyword(s):  
Assessment Tool ◽  
Word List ◽  
Normative Values ◽  
College Athlete ◽  
Delayed Recall ◽  
Black African ◽  
Immediate Memory ◽  
Medical Testing ◽  
Memory Score ◽  
African American Athletes

ObjectivesThe Sport Concussion Assessment Tool-5 (SCAT5) was published in 2017; however, normative performance within the college athlete population on the optional 10-item word list has not been described. This study reports normative values for immediate memory trials, total immediate memory score and delayed recall of the 10-item word list.MethodsThe SCAT5 was administered as part of the preparticipation medical testing to 514 collegiate student-athletes, aged 17–23 (M=19.65,SD=1.40; 64% male) prior to the 2017–2018 athletic season.ResultsOn the SCAT5’s optional 10-item word list, with a total possible immediate memory score of 30, participants recalled an average of 20.57 (SD=3.22) words over three learning trials, with an average for trial 3 of 8.13 (SD=1.32). The average delayed memory score was 6.59 (SD=1.85). Small but significant demographic comparisons were found. Women scored higher on both immediate and delayed recall, non-native speakers scored higher on delayed recall, and Black/African-American athletes scored lower than White athletes on immediate, and lower than White and Hispanic/Latino athletes on delayed recall.ConclusionThe 10-item word list on the SCAT5 eliminates the ceiling effect observed on the five-item word list of the SCAT3, therefore, increasing its clinical utility in the diagnosis of sports-related concussions. Significant demographic differences suggest use of category-specific norms for sex, native language and race/ethnicity.

scholarly journals THE ASSOCIATION OF HISTORY OF CONCUSSION WITH BASELINE SCORES ON THE SPORT CONCUSSION ASSESSMENT TOOL (SCAT5) IN HIGH SCHOOL RUGBY PLAYERS

2019 ◽  
Vol 7 (3_suppl) ◽  
pp. 2325967119S0000
Author(s):  
Amanda M. Black ◽  
Lauren N. Miutz ◽  
Paul H. Eliason ◽  
Kathryn Schneider ◽  
Keith O. Yeates ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
High School ◽  
Assessment Tool ◽  
Previous History ◽  
Word List ◽  
Immediate Memory ◽  
Memory Score ◽  
Sport Concussion ◽  
History Of ◽  
Baseline Testing ◽  
Rugby Players

Background: The Sport Concussion Assessment Tool 5 (SCAT5) is a standardized instrument designed to assist with the clinical and sideline assessment of concussion. Following the 5th International Conference on Concussion in Sport in 2016, the SCAT5 was released. Compared to the previous version (SCAT3), the SCAT5 includes more detailed instructions regarding the symptom checklist and a 10-word list in the immediate memory section to diminish ceiling effects. This study aims to examine the association between having a previous history of concussion and SCAT5 scores in high school rugby players. A second objective is to provide reference values for healthy rugby players for the SCAT5, including typical scores on immediate memory using the 10-word list. Methods: High school rugby players (ages 15-18) from Calgary, Alberta participating in the 2018 high school rugby season (n=388, male=212, female=176) were recruited to a cohort study and asked to complete a baseline SCAT5 assessment administered by trained research assistants at the beginning of the playing season. Outcome measures included baseline symptom evaluation (/22 symptoms)], self-reported rating of percentage of normal (100% perfectly normal) felt at time of testing, immediate memory score using a 10-word list [/30)], digits backward (/4), delayed word memory (/10), and modified Balance Error Scoring System [BESS (/30)]. Players also completed a preseason demographic questionnaire, which assessed their history of concussion. Results: A total of 237/388 (61.08%) rugby players reported no history of concussion (NC) and 151/388 (38.92%) reported at least 1 previous concussion (PC). Ninety of the 212 males (42.45%) and 61 of the 176 females (34.66%) reported a history of previous concussion. Median SCAT5 symptom score was 6 (range; 0-21) for NC and 7 (0-22) for PC groups. At the time of baseline testing, only 30.51% of NC players and 21.85% of PC players reported feeling 100% of normal. Median total scores on the immediate memory score (/30) were 21 (range; 9-28) for NC and 21 (range; 9-29) for PC. Median total score on digits backward (/4) was 3 (range; 0-4) and the delayed memory score (/10) was 7 (range; 0-20), for both NC and PC groups. Median total errors made on the BESS were 4 (range; 0-20) for NC players and 5 (range; 0-17) for PC players. Conclusions: Players with and without a previous history of concussion obtained similar scores on all components of the SCAT5 at baseline. Many high school rugby players did not report feeling 100% of normal during typical baseline testing sessions. The addition of the 10-word list option in the immediate and delayed memory section reduces the likelihood of a ceiling effect. This study informs the use and interpretation of the SCAT5 in high school rugby players.

scholarly journals Use of the Sport Concussion Assessment Tool 5 (SCAT5) in professional hockey, part 1: cross-cultural normative data

2020 ◽  
pp. bjsports-2020-102071
Author(s):  
Ruben J Echemendia ◽  
Joanie Thelen ◽  
Willem Meeuwisse ◽  
Michael G Hutchison ◽  
Paul Comper ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Normative Data ◽  
English Language ◽  
Assessment Tool ◽  
Continuous Variable ◽  
Ice Hockey ◽  
Language Preference ◽  
Delayed Recall ◽  
Immediate Memory ◽  
Sport Concussion ◽  
Data Tables

ObjectivesThis paper provides comprehensive normative data stratified by language preference and age on the components of the National Hockey League (NHL) Sport Concussion Assessment Tool 5 (SCAT5) in a multilingual sample of professional ice hockey players and compares the findings from a paper form of the NHL SCAT5 with an electronic (App) version of the tool.MethodsA total of 1924 male NHL and American Hockey League (AHL) players (ages 17–41) were assessed during preseason medical evaluations (baseline); 1881 were assessed with the NHL SCAT5 App via tablet and 43 received the paper version of the NHL Modified SCAT5.ResultsNo significant differences between the App and paper modes of administration emerged in a subsample of English preference players. Significant SCAT5 differences among language preference groups emerged on measures of cognitive functioning (Immediate Memory,Concentration). No language preference differences emerged on the Delayed Recall component. Using age as a continuous variable, older participants outperformed younger players on Immediate Memory, Delayed Recall and Concentration. Players wearing skates demonstrated significantly more modified Balance Error Scoring System (mBESS) total errors than barefoot players. Normative data tables for language preference groups are presented.ConclusionsSignificant differences were found between English and non-English language preference groups on the components of SCAT5, which suggest that language-specific normative data, rather than aggregated normative data, are preferable when interpreting test scores. Similarly, age-specific normative data tables may provide greater precision in data interpretation. Due to clear ceiling effects on the mBESS single leg and tandem stances, players should not be tested while wearing skates.

scholarly journals Population normative data for three cognitive screening tools for older adults in sub-Saharan Africa

2021 ◽  
Vol 15 (3) ◽  
pp. 339-349
Author(s):  
William Keith Gray ◽  
Stella-Maria Paddick ◽  
Adesola Ogunniyi ◽  
Olaide Olakehinde ◽  
Catherine Dotchin ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Older Adults ◽  
Verbal Fluency ◽  
Normative Data ◽  
Word List ◽  
Community Dwelling ◽  
Sub Saharan Africa ◽  
Normative Values ◽  
Cognitive Screening ◽  
Delayed Recall ◽  
Sub Saharan

ABSTRACT In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA),cognitive screening is complicated by both cultural and educational factors, and the existing normative values may not be applicable. The Identification of Dementia in Elderly Africans (IDEA) cognitive screen is a low-literacy measure with good diagnostic accuracy for dementia. Objective: The aim of this study is to report normative values for IDEA and other simple measures [i.e., categorical verbal fluency, the Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer’s Disease (CERAD) 10-word list] in representative community-dwelling older adults in SSA. Methods: Individuals aged ≥60 years resident in 12 representative villages in Kilimanjaro, Tanzania and individuals aged ≥65 years resident within three communities in Akinyele Local Government Area, Oyo State, Nigeria underwent cognitive screening. The normative data were generated by the categories of age, sex, and education. Results: A total of 3,011 people in Tanzania (i.e., 57.3% females and 26.4% uneducated) and 1,117 in Nigeria (i.e., 60.3% females and 64.5% uneducated) were screened. Individuals with higher age, lower education, and female gender obtained lower scores. The 50th decile values for IDEA were 13 (60–64 years) vs. 8/9 (above 85 years), 10–11 uneducated vs. 13 primary educated, and 11/12 in females vs. 13 in males. The normative values for 10-word list delayed recall and categorical verbal fluency varied with education [i.e., delayed recall mean 2.8 [standard deviation (SD) 1.7] uneducated vs. 4.2 (SD 1.2) secondary educated; verbal fluency mean 9.2 (SD 4.8) uneducated vs. 12.2 (SD 4.3) secondary educated], substantially lower than published high-income country values. Conclusions: The cut-off values for commonly used cognitive screening items should be adjusted to suit local normative values, particularly where there are lower levels of education.

scholarly journals Use of the Sport Concussion Assessment Tool 5 (SCAT5) in professional hockey, part 2: which components differentiate concussed and non-concussed players?

2020 ◽  
pp. bjsports-2020-102072
Author(s):  
Jared M Bruce ◽  
Joanie Thelen ◽  
Willem Meeuwisse ◽  
Michael G Hutchison ◽  
John Rizos ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Assessment Tool ◽  
Word List ◽  
Symptom Report ◽  
Immediate Memory ◽  
Learning Tasks ◽  
Hockey Players ◽  
Sport Concussion ◽  
List Learning ◽  
English Speaking ◽  
Professional Hockey

ObjectivesTo examine the utility of Sport Concussion Assessment Tool (SCAT5) subcomponents in differentiating physician diagnosed concussed players from controls.MethodsWe evaluated 1924 professional hockey players at training camp using the National Hockey League (NHL) Modified SCAT5 prior to the 2018–2019 season. Over the course of the season, 314 English-speaking players received SCAT5 evaluations within 1 day of a suspected concussive event. Of these players, 140 (45%) were subsequently diagnosed with concussion by their team physicians.ResultsConcussed players reported more symptoms (Concussed M=8.52, SD=4.78; Control M=3.32, SD=3.97), and recalled fewer words than Controls on both the Immediate Memory (Concussed M=19.34, SD=4.06; Control M=21.53, SD=2.94) and Delayed Recall (Concussed z=−0.91; Control z=−0.09) tasks during the acute evaluation. Concussed players also made more errors than Controls on the mBESS and were more likely to report double vision and exhibit clinician-observed balance problems than controls. There were no between-group differences on the Concentration component of the SCAT5. Stepwise regression revealed that symptom report and list learning tasks both accounted for independent variance in identifying players diagnosed with concussion.ConclusionsThese findings provide support for use of the SCAT5 to assist in identifying concussed professional hockey players. When examining SCAT5 subtests, both symptom report and the 10-item word list accounted for independent variance in identifying concussion status in this sample of professional hockey players. The mBESS also differentiated Concussed players and Controls. The Concentration component of the SCAT5 did not significantly differentiate Concussed players and Controls.

scholarly journals Baseline Performance of High School Rugby Players on the Sport Concussion Assessment Tool 5

2020 ◽  
Vol 55 (2) ◽  
pp. 116-123
Author(s):  
Amanda M. Black ◽  
Lauren N. Miutz ◽  
Vineetha Warriyar KV ◽  
Kathryn J. Schneider ◽  
Keith Owen Yeates ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
High School ◽  
Symptom Severity ◽  
Assessment Tool ◽  
Word List ◽  
Rugby Union ◽  
Symptom Scale ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Immediate Memory ◽  
Sport Concussion ◽  
Concussion History

Context Version 5 of the Sport Concussion Assessment Tool (SCAT5) was released in 2017 with an additional 10-word list option in the memory section and additional instructions for completing the symptom scale. Objective To provide reference scores for high school rugby union players on the SCAT5, including immediate memory using the 10-word list, and examine how age, sex, and concussion history affected performance. Design Cross-sectional study. Setting Calgary, Alberta high schools. Patients or Other Participants High school rugby union players (ages 15–18 years) participating in a 2018 season cohort study (n = 380, males = 210, females = 170). Main Outcome Measure(s) Sport Concussion Assessment Tool 5 scores, including total number of symptoms (of 20), symptom severity (of 132), 10-word immediate memory (of 30), delayed memory (of 10), modified Standardized Assessment of Concussion (of 50), and balance examination (of 30). Results The median number of symptoms reported at baseline ranged from 5 to 8 across sex and age stratifications. Median symptom severity was lowest in males with no concussion history (7; range, 0–28) and highest in females with a concussion history (13, range = 0–45). Median total scores on immediate memory were 2–3 (range = 0–4) for males and 21 (range = 9–29) for females. Median total scores were 3 (range = 0–4) on digits backward and 7 (range = 0–20) on delayed memory (all groups). Based on simultaneous quantile (q) regression at 0.50 and 0.75, adjusted for age and concussion history, being female was associated with a higher total symptoms score (q0.75 βfemale = 2.85; 99% confidence interval [CI] = 0.33, 5.37), higher total symptom severity score (q0.75 βfemale = 8.00; 99% CI = 2.83, 13.17), and lower number of errors on the balance examination (q0.75 βfemale = −3.00; 99% CI = −4.85, −1.15). Age and concussion history were not associated with any summary measures. Conclusions The 10-word list option in the memory section reduced the likelihood of a ceiling effect. A player's sex may be an important consideration when interpreting the SCAT5 after concussion.

scholarly journals Influence of age, gender and educational level on performance in the Brief Cognitive Battery-Edu

2008 ◽  
Vol 2 (2) ◽  
pp. 114-118 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ricardo Nitrini ◽  
Sonia Maria Dozzi Brucki ◽  
Jerusa Smid ◽  
Maria Teresa Carthery-Goulart ◽  
Renato Anghinah ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Logistic Regression ◽  
Educational Level ◽  
Good Accuracy ◽  
Exclusion Criteria ◽  
Delayed Recall ◽  
Immediate Memory ◽  
Visual Identification ◽  
Clinical Conditions ◽  
Adult Volunteers ◽  
Univariate Analyses

Abstract The Brief Cognitive Battery-Edu (BCB-Edu) contains nine tests, seven of which are related to the memory of drawings, and has good accuracy in the diagnosis of cognitive impairment. Objectives: To evaluate the influence of age, gender and educational level on the performance in tests related to memory of drawings of the BCB-Edu in healthy subjects. Methods: Participants were adult volunteers; exclusion criteria were illiteracy, neurologic or psychiatric disorders, visual or hearing impairment, untreated chronic clinical conditions, alcoholism, use of drugs, and for those aged 65 or over, an informant report of cognitive or functional impairment. We evaluated 325 individuals (207 women), with a mean age of 47.1 (±16.8) years, ranging from 19 to 81, and a mean of 9.8 (±5.0) schooling-years. Univariate analyses, correlations and logistic regression were employed (a=0.05). Results: There were significant negative correlations between age and the scores in four of the seven tests. However, schooling-years were positively correlated to the scores, where schooling-years decreased with age in this sample (rho= -0.323; p<0.001). Logistic regression confirmed that gender influenced the learning of drawings, where women performed better, while age influenced incidental memory, immediate memory, learning and delayed recall of the drawings, and schooling-years influenced visual identification, immediate memory, learning, delayed recall and recognition of the drawings. Conclusion: Gender, age and education influence the performance on the memory of drawings of the BCB-Edu, although the extent of these influences differs according to the nature of the test.

scholarly journals Examining Sex Differences in Markers of Cognition and Neurodegeneration in Autosomal Dominant Alzheimer’s Disease: Preliminary Findings from the Colombian Alzheimer’s Prevention Initiative Biomarker Study

2020 ◽  
Vol 77 (4) ◽  
pp. 1743-1753
Author(s):  
Clara Vila-Castelar ◽  
Edmarie Guzmán-Vélez ◽  
Enmanuelle Pardilla-Delgado ◽  
Rachel F. Buckley ◽  
Yamile Bocanegra ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Alzheimer’S Disease ◽  
Sex Differences ◽  
Autosomal Dominant ◽  
Volume Ratio ◽  
Word List ◽  
Hippocampal Volume ◽  
Delayed Recall ◽  
List Learning ◽  
Age Range ◽  
Female Carriers

Background: Growing evidence suggests that there may be a sex-specific biological risk for Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Individuals with autosomal dominant AD due to a mutation (E280A) in Presenilin-1 (PSEN1) are genetically determined to develop early-onset dementia and thus, have few age-related risk factors for AD that are known to vary by sex (i.e., cardiovascular disease, menopause, life expectancy). Objective: Investigate sex differences in markers of cognition and neurodegeneration in autosomal dominant AD. Methods: We conducted a retrospective study in 19 cognitively-unimpaired PSEN1 mutation carriers (age range 20–44; 11 females), 11 symptomatic carriers (age range 42–56; 8 females), and 23 matched non-carriers family members (age range 20–50; 13 females). We examined hippocampal volume ratio, CERAD Total Score, and CERAD Word List (i.e., Learning, Delayed Recall, and Recognition). Mann-Whitney U tests, Spearman correlations and regression models were conducted. Results: There were no differential associations between age, CERAD Total Score, CERAD Word List–Learning, Delayed Recall, Recognition, and hippocampal volume ratio in male and female carriers and non-carriers. Cognitively-unimpaired female carriers showed better CERAD Total scores and CERAD Word List-Learning than cognitively-unimpaired male carriers, despite having similar hippocampal volume ratios. The interaction of sex and hippocampal volume ratio did not predict cognitive performance across groups. Conclusion: Our preliminary findings suggest that cognitively-unimpaired female carriers showed a verbal memory reserve, and as disease progresses, female carriers did not exhibit a cognitive susceptibility to AD-related neurodegeneration. Future studies with larger samples of autosomal dominant AD are warranted to further understand sex differences in AD-related clinical and pathological markers.

Multivariate Base Rates of Low Scores and Reliable Decline on ImPACT in Healthy Collegiate Athletes Using CARE Consortium Norms

2019 ◽  
Vol 25 (09) ◽  
pp. 961-971 ◽  
Author(s):  
Zac M. Houck ◽  
Breton M. Asken ◽  
Russell M. Bauer ◽  
Anthony P. Kontos ◽  
Michael A. McCrea ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Collegiate Athletes ◽  
Cognitive Testing ◽  
Chi Square ◽  
Reliable Change ◽  
Black African ◽  
Hyperactivity Disorder ◽  
Base Rates ◽  
African American Athletes ◽  
Concussion History ◽  
Composite Scores

AbstractObjectives: To describe multivariate base rates (MBRs) of low scores and reliable change (decline) scores on Immediate Post-Concussion Assessment and Cognitive Testing (ImPACT) in college athletes at baseline, as well as to assess MBR differences among demographic and medical history subpopulations. Methods: Data were reported on 15,909 participants (46.5% female) from the NCAA/DoD CARE Consortium. MBRs of ImPACT composite scores were derived using published CARE normative data and reliability metrics. MBRs of sex-corrected low scores were reported at &lt;25th percentile (Low Average), &lt;10th percentile (Borderline), and ≤2nd percentile (Impaired). MBRs of reliable decline scores were reported at the 75%, 90%, 95%, and 99% confidence intervals. We analyzed subgroups by sex, race, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and/or learning disability (ADHD/LD), anxiety/depression, and concussion history using chi-square analyses. Results: Base rates of low scores and reliable decline scores on individual composites approximated the normative distribution. Athletes obtained ≥1 low score with frequencies of 63.4% (Low Average), 32.0% (Borderline), and 9.1% (Impaired). Athletes obtained ≥1 reliable decline score with frequencies of 66.8%, 32.2%, 18%, and 3.8%, respectively. Comparatively few athletes had low scores or reliable decline on ≥2 composite scores. Black/African American athletes and athletes with ADHD/LD had higher rates of low scores, while greater concussion history was associated with lower MBRs (p &lt; .01). MBRs of reliable decline were not associated with demographic or medical factors. Conclusions: Clinical interpretation of low scores and reliable decline on ImPACT depends on the strictness of the low score cutoff, the reliable change criterion, and the number of scores exceeding these cutoffs. Race and ADHD influence the frequency of low scores at all cutoffs cross-sectionally.

scholarly journals Sex Differences in Performance of a Clinically-Relevant Dual-Task Assessment in Healthy College Students

Neurology ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 93 (14 Supplement 1) ◽  
pp. S33.2-S34
Author(s):  
Nicholas Erdman, AT ◽  
Juliana Jimenez ◽  
David Howell ◽  
Thomas Buckley ◽  
Joseph Hart ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
College Students ◽  
Sex Differences ◽  
Dual Task ◽  
Word List ◽  
Interaction Effects ◽  
Cross Sectional Study ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Immediate Memory ◽  
Biological Sex ◽  
Clinical Measures

ObjectiveTo determine if biological sex influenced performance on a novel dual-task (DT) assessment which consisted of commonly used clinical measures of sport concussion (SC) in healthy college students.BackgroundDT assessments consist of motor and cognitive tasks administered simultaneously and show promise as clinical measures of SC.Design/MethodsOur cross-sectional study included 60 (53.3% female) healthy, recreationally active college students (age = 20.5 ± 1.34 years, height = 171.7 ± 9.33 cm, mass = 69.25 ± 12.23 kg). Participants completed the Standardized Assessment of Concussion (SAC) and timed tandem gait (TTG) test independently (single task [ST]) and concurrently (DT). The revised SAC (45 points) which included a 10-word list was utilized. The TTG composite score was a sum of the average time to completion for each SAC task (3 trials for immediate memory [10-word list], up to 5 trials for the digits-backwards task, and one trial for the months in reverse order and delayed recall tasks). Independent t-tests were used to assess for sex differences for SAC and TTG performance during ST and DT administration. 2 × 2 factorial analyses of variance (ANOVA) were used to assess for sex (male, female) by task (ST, DT) interaction effects with effect sizes calculated using Cohen’s d. All analyses were assessed at α = 0.05.ResultsNo sex differences were observed for ST performance of the SAC (males = 37.1 ± 3.45 points, females = 37.4 ± 3.74 points; t[58] = 0.28, p = 0.78) or TTG (males = 44.3 ± 7.09 seconds, females = 46.1 ± 8.88 seconds; t[58] = 0.88, p = 0.38). No sex differences were observed for DT performance of the SAC (males = 39.7 ± 4.50 points, females = 39.2 ± 3.12 points; t[58] = 0.46, p = 0.64) or TTG (males = 52.1 ± 8.56 seconds, females = 52.1 ± 10.28 seconds; t[58] = 0.02, p = 0.98). No sex by task interaction effects were observed for SAC (F = 0.74, p = 0.39, d = 0.23) or TTG (F = 1.1, p = 0.30, d = 0.28) performance for ST or DT assessment.ConclusionsOur results indicate that our novel DT assessment was robust to sex differences in healthy college students which supports the utilization of our DT assessment across sexes without adjustment for interpretation.

The Influence of Acoustic and Semantic Similarity on Long-term Memory for Word Sequences

1966 ◽  
Vol 18 (4) ◽  
pp. 302-309 ◽  
Author(s):  
A. D. Baddeley
Keyword(s):  
Semantic Similarity ◽  
Short Term Memory ◽  
Word List ◽  
Long Term Memory ◽  
Acoustic Similarity ◽  
Term Memory ◽  
Immediate Memory ◽  
Coding Systems ◽  
Learning Score

It has been shown that short-term memory (STM) for word sequences is grossly impaired when acoustically similar words are used, but is relatively unaffected by semantic similarity. This study tests the hypothesis that long-term memory (LTM) will be similarly affected. In Experiment I subjects attempted to learn one of four lists of 10 words. The lists comprised either acoustically or semantically similar words (A and C) or control words of equal frequency (B and D). Lists were learned for four trials, after which subjects spent 20 min. on a task involving immediate memory for digits. They were then asked to recall the word list. The acoustically similar list was learned relatively slowly, but unlike the other three lists showed no forgetting. Experiment II showed that this latter paradox can be explained by assuming the learning score to depend on both LTM and STM, whereas the subsequent retest depends only on LTM. Experiment III repeats Experiment I but attempts to minimize the effects of STM during learning by interposing a task to prevent rehearsal between the presentation and testing of the word sequences. Unlike STM, LTM proved to be impaired by semantic similarity but not by acoustic similarity. It is concluded that STM and LTM employ different coding systems.

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