Prevalence of Intestinal Parasites and Schistosoma mansoni and Associated Factors among Fishermen at Lake Tana, Northwest Ethiopia

Background. Intestinal parasites and Schistosoma mansoni infections adversely affect the health of humans in the world especially in sub-Saharan African countries including Ethiopia. Fishermen who spend most of their time in water bodies are supposed to be at high risk of schistosomiasis and other water-born parasites. However, the magnitude of these parasitic infections and their determinant factors are not well addressed. Methods. A cross-sectional study was conducted at Lake Tana among 388 fishermen from March to May 2021. Questionnaire data was collected through face to face interview. Stool sample from each participant was processed by the Kato-Katz and spontaneous tube sedimentation techniques. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 26. Results. One hundred sixty four (42.3%) and 88 (22.7%) participants were infected by intestinal parasites and Schistosoma mansoni, respectively. One hundred twenty two (31.4%) and 42 (10.8%) participants were infected by soil-transmitted helminths and intestinal protozoa, respectively. Attending only primary school ( AOR = 2.02 , p = 0.014 ) or being illiterate ( AOR = 2.54 , p = 0.004 ) and not washing hands before meal ( AOR = 2.23 , p = 0.007 ) were significantly associated with intestinal parasitic infections. Illiterate educational status ( AOR = 2.37 , p = 0.022 ), fishing by bargee ( AOR = 2.43 , p = 0.005 ), fishing ≥4 days per week ( AOR = 2.27 , p = 0.029 ), swimming habit ( AOR = 3.03 , p = 0.030 ), and participation in irrigation ( AOR = 3.09 , p ≤ 0.001 ) predispose fishermen to S. mansoni infection. Conclusion. Intestinal parasites and S. mansoni infections are highly prevalent among fishermen at Lake Tana basin. Low education level and frequent water contact predispose fishermen for intestinal parasites and S. mansoni. Therefore, health education to fishermen on intestinal parasites and S. mansoni infection and regular deworming should be advocated.

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Predicting frequency distribution and influence of sociodemographic and behavioral risk factors of Schistosoma mansoni infection and analysis of co-infection with intestinal parasites

Geospatial health ◽

10.4081/gh.2015.303 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 10 (1) ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

Carla V.V. Rollemberg ◽

Marília M.B.L. Silva ◽

Karla C. Rollemberg ◽

Fábio R. Amorim ◽

Nayanna M.N. Lessa ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Schistosoma Mansoni ◽

Low Income ◽

Intestinal Parasites ◽

Kernel Estimation ◽

Kernel Estimator ◽

Integrated Approach ◽

Parasitic Infections ◽

Behavioral Risk ◽

Water Contact ◽

Untreated Water

Geospatial analysis was used to study the epidemiology of Schistosoma mansoni, intestinal parasites and co-infections in an area (Ilha das Flores) in Sergipe, Brazil. We collected individually georeferenced sociodemographic, behavioral and parasitological data from 500 subjects, analyzed them by conventional statistics, and produced risk maps by Kernel estimation. The prevalence rates found were: S. mansoni (24.0%), Trichuris trichiura (54.8%), Ascaris lumbricoides (49.2%), Hookworm (17.6%) and Entamoeba histolytica (7.0%). Only 59/500 (11.8%) individuals did not present any of these infections, whereas 279/500 (55.8%) were simultaneously infected by three or more parasites. We observed associations between S. mansoni infection and various variables such as male gender, being rice farmer or fisherman, low educational level, low income, water contact and drinking untreated water. The Kernel estimator indicated that high-risk areas coincide with the poorest regions of the villages as well as with the part of the villages without an adequate sewage system. We also noted associations between both A. lumbricoides and hookworm infections with low education and low income. A. lumbricoides infection and T. trichiura infection were both associated with drinking untreated water and residential open-air sewage. These findings call for an integrated approach to effectively control multiple parasitic infections.

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Prevalence and Associated Factors of Intestinal Parasites in Ethiopian Ortodox Tewahido Church Religious Students, Ethiopia

10.21203/rs.3.rs-28438/v1 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Ayenew Addisu ◽

Habtamu Gebre ◽

Sara Tesfaye ◽

Mola Zewdu ◽

Meseret Birhanie

Keyword(s):

Associated Factors ◽

Intestinal Parasites ◽

Sampling Technique ◽

Northwest Ethiopia ◽

Parasitic Infections ◽

Health Seeking ◽

School Students ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Gondar Town ◽

Church School

Abstract Background Intestinal parasitic infections are the most serious medical and public health problems in developing countries. In Ethiopia, intestinal parasites are among the top ten causes of morbidity, especially in children. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence and associated factors of intestinal parasites among Ethiopian Orthodox church school students in Gondar town, northwest Ethiopia. Method: an institutional-based cross-sectional study was conducted to assess the prevalence and associated factors of intestinal parasites among religious students in Gondar town from February 2019 to April 2019, northwest Ethiopia. A total of 360 participants were selected by the random sampling technique. Results In this study, a total of 360 Orthodox Tewahido church school students were participated. The over all parasite prevalence, 24.7% was relatively low compared with previous studies conducted in other localitie in Ethiopia. The predominanat parasites were A. lumbricoides S. mansoni and hookworm with (11.4%), (4.4%) and (3.6%) prevalence respectively, A significant association was observed among participants with habits of frequent swiming with 2.3 times higher probability of acquaring infections, but there was no association with gender, age, finger nail status, the habit of eating uncooked vegetables/ fruits, source of drinking water and proper toilet utilization. Conclusion In general, the prevalence of intestinal parasite infections was high and calls for intervention actions on Orthodox Tewahido church students. Moreover, swimming frequency and habits had a significant association. Since the prevalence was high, improvement in awareness and enhancing health seeking behavior of the students, deworming and health education need to be focused on.

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Determinants of Helminthic Infections and Anemia among Schoolchildren in Bahir Dar Zuria District, Northwest Ethiopia

Journal of Parasitology Research ◽

10.1155/2021/9913118 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 2021 ◽

pp. 1-7

Author(s):

Yeshimebet Fetene ◽

Tadesse Hailu ◽

Mulat Yimer ◽

Megbaru Alemu

Keyword(s):

Schistosoma Mansoni ◽

Intestinal Parasites ◽

Sampling Technique ◽

Cross Sectional Study ◽

Northwest Ethiopia ◽

Hemoglobin Level ◽

Current Status ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Concentration Technique ◽

Helminthic Infections

Background. Soil-transmitted helminths and Schistosoma mansoni are the major helminthic parasites that cause major public health problems among schoolchildren in developing countries. Infection with the above parasites decreases the hemoglobin level of children. However, information regarding the current status of helminthic infections and anemia is limited. Hence, this study aimed to assess the prevalence and determinants of helminthic infections and anemia among children. Methods. A cross-sectional study was conducted among 394 schoolchildren at Sekelet primary school in northwest Ethiopia, from February to March 2017. Study participants were selected by a systematic random sampling technique. Stool samples were collected and processed via the modified Ritchie’s concentration technique to detect parasites in stool. A HemoCue Hb 201 analyzer was used to determine the hemoglobin level. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 23 statistical software. Association of helminthic infections and anemia with independent variables was determined using logistic regression analysis. Variables with P < 0.05 were considered statistically significant. Results. From the total of 394 participants, 185 (46.9%), 164 (41.6%), and 112 (28.4%) were infected with intestinal parasites, helminths, and STHs, respectively. The prevalence of hookworm and Schistosoma mansoni were 106 (25.6%) and 54 (13.7%), respectively. The prevalence of anemia among the schoolchildren was 278 (70.6%). Anemia was prevalent among 55 (51.9%) hookworm-infected and 19 (35.2%) S. mansoni-infected children. Not wearing shoes and improper utilization of latrine were significantly associated ( P < 0.05 ) with hookworm infection, and frequent swimming in the river was also significantly associated ( P ≤ 0.001 ) with Schistosoma mansoni infection. Schistosoma mansoni and hookworm infections were also significantly associated ( P ≤ 0.001 ) with low levels of hemoglobin. Conclusion. Hookworm and Schistosoma mansoni infections and anemia are highly prevalent among schoolchildren. Hookworm and Schistosoma mansoni infections are significantly associated with anemia. Therefore, helminthic detection and hemoglobin determination should be done simultaneously among schoolchildren.

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Prevalence of Intestinal Parasites and Associated Factors among Pulmonary Tuberculosis Suspected Patients Attending University of Gondar Hospital, Gondar, Northwest Ethiopia

Journal of Parasitology Research ◽

10.1155/2018/9372145 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 2018 ◽

pp. 1-6 ◽

Cited By ~ 4

Author(s):

Yalewayker Tegegne ◽

Tadelo Wondmagegn ◽

Ligabaw Worku ◽

Ayalew Jejaw Zeleke

Keyword(s):

Pulmonary Tuberculosis ◽

Intestinal Parasites ◽

Cross Sectional Study ◽

Northwest Ethiopia ◽

Parasitic Infections ◽

Chi Square ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Concentration Technique ◽

Control And Prevention ◽

Chi Square Test

Introduction. Intestinal parasitic infections are among the major public health problems in developing countries. Hence, it is significant to explore coinfection with intestinal parasites and pulmonary tuberculosis because coinfection increases the complexity of control and prevention of pulmonary tuberculosis and parasitic diseases.Objective. To assess the prevalence of intestinal parasites among pulmonary tuberculosis suspected patients.Method. Institutional based cross-sectional study was conducted at University of Gondar Hospital from March to May, 2017. Stool samples were taken from each participant and examined by direct microscopy and concentration technique. Descriptive statistics was performed and chi-square test was used to show the association between variables.Pvalues of <0.05 were considered statistically significant.Results. Intestinal parasites were detected in 50 (19.6%) among a total of 256 pulmonary tuberculosis suspected patients who were included in the study, whereas the prevalence of pulmonary tuberculosis was 16.8% (43/256). Pulmonary tuberculosis and intestinal parasite coinfection was detected in 5 (2.0%) of the participants. The most prevalent intestinal parasites infection in this study wasAscaris lumbricoides,15 (5.85%), followed byEntamoeba histolytica/dispar,14 (5.46%), and Hookworm, 13 (5.1%).Conclusion. The prevalence of intestinal parasites and their coinfection rate with pulmonary tuberculosis among pulmonary tuberculosis suspected patients were considerable.

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Circulating Cytokine Profiles of Polyparasitized Individuals in Gabon.

10.21203/rs.3.rs-24917/v1 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Noé Patrick M'Bondoukwé ◽

Reinne Moutongo ◽

Komi Gbédandé ◽

Jacques Mari Ndong Ngomo ◽

Tatiana Hountohotegbe ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Intestinal Parasites ◽

Parasitic Infections ◽

Control Group ◽

Asymptomatic Malaria ◽

Intestinal Protozoan ◽

Intestinal Protozoa ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Parasitological Diagnosis ◽

Tnf Α ◽

Α Level

Abstract Background Malaria, blood-borne filarial worms and intestinal parasites are all endemic in Gabon. This geographical co-distribution leads to polyparasitism and, consequently, the possibility of immune-mediated interactions between different parasite species. Intestinal protozoa and helminths could modulate anti-malarial immunity, for example, thereby potentially increasing susceptibility to malaria.Methods Blood and stool samples were collected during cross-sectional surveys in five provinces of Gabon. Parasitological diagnosis was performed to detect plasmodial parasites, Loa loa and Mansonella perstans, intestinal helminths (STH) and protozoan parasites. Nested PCR was used to detect submicroscopic plasmodial infection in individuals with negative blood smears. Cytometric Bead Array was used to quantify interleukin (IL)-6, IL-10 and Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)-α in plasma of subjects with different parasitological profiles i.e. malaria only, filariasis only, intestinal protozoan only, soil-transmitted helminths (STH) only, malaria/filariasis, malaria/STH, malaria/intestinal protozoa co-infections and in uninfected individuals/control group.Results Median IL-6 (124.5 [36.9–433.9] pg/mL) and IL-10 (224.5 [78.0–657.9] pg/mL) levels and the median IL-10/TNF-α (69.9 [12.5–140-7]) ratio were all significantly higher among individuals with Plasmodium falciparum infection compared to other groups (p < 0.0001). The median TNF-α level (6.5 [3.5–11.7] pg/mL) and IL-10/IL-6 ratio (3.6 [2.0–11.9]) were higher in subjects with STH (p = 0.09) and P. falciparum-intestinal protozoa co-infection (p = 0.04), respectively. IL-6 (rho=-0.37; p < 0.01) and IL-10 (rho=-0.37; p < 0.01) levels, and the IL-10/TNF-α ratio (rho=-0.36; p < 0.01) correlated negatively with age, independently of infectious status. Among children under five years old, the IL-10/TNF-α and IL-10/IL-6 ratios were higher in those with intestinal protozoan infections compared to uninfected children. The IL-10/TNF-α ratio was also higher in children aged 5–15 years and in adults harbouring blood-borne filariae compared to their control counterparts, whereas the IL-10/IL-6 ratio was lower in those aged 5–15 years with filariae and intestinal parasites but higher in adults with intestinal parasitic infections.Conclusions Asymptomatic malaria is associated with a strong polarization towards a regulatory immune response, reflected by high circulating levels of IL-10. Co-infections with P. falciparum and intestinal protozoa are associated with an enhanced IL-10 response. Immunity against malaria could differ according to age and carriage of other parasites.

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A Cross Sectional Assessment on Distribution of Snail and Risk Factors of Schistosoma Mansoni Infection in Proximity to Water Contact Points in Gorgora Town, Western Dembia District, Northwest Ethiopia.

10.21203/rs.3.rs-117767/v1 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Aberham Abere ◽

Ligabaw Worku ◽

Abebe Genetu ◽

Dessie Abebaw ◽

Adane Derso ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Risk Factors ◽

Schistosoma Mansoni ◽

Fresh Water ◽

Health Problem ◽

Northwest Ethiopia ◽

Schistosome Infection ◽

Biomphalaria Pfeifferi ◽

Water Contact ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Contact Points

Abstract Background: Schistosomiasis is one of the great neglected tropical diseases with socio-economic and health problem worldwide. In Ethiopia numerous studies reported S. mansoni is high among school-age and preschool age children. Though intensive prevalence studies are conducted the snail distribution and infectivity status and human infection rate dynamics in Ethiopian context remains poorly understood. Thus the purpose of the current study was to assess distribution of snail and risk factors of Schistosoma mansoni infection in proximity to water contact points in Gorgora town, Western Dembia District, Northwest Ethiopia. Method: A Community based cross-sectional study was conducted in Gorgora Town from March to May 2020. A total of 385 study participants were selected by systematic random sampling technique. Stool sample was collected and examined by Kato-Katz technique. Malacological survey was done from sampling sites showing signs of human activity near Lake Tana shoreline. Live snails collected in plastic bucket containing water and weed were transported within four hours to the University of Gondar, Medical parasitology laboratory for identification and determination of infection. Data was entered with EPI Data version 4.4.2.1. Data analysis was carried out using SPSS version 20.0 and STATA version 15.0. p-value ≤ 0.05 was reported as statistically significant. Spatial distribution analysis was done using ArcGIS system for Geographical Information System (GIS). Result: The overall prevalence of S. mansoni infection was 36.6% (CI: 32-41.9) with intensity of 30.5%, 27.0% and 42.6% for light, moderate, and heavy, respectively. Among the different fresh water snails collected on the basis of shell morphology 546(%) were Biomphalaria pfeifferi, 310(28.1%) were Bulinus spp, 101(9.1%) were Lymnaea, and 147(13.3%) were Bivalve. Schistosome infection in Biomphalaria spp. was 0.0%. Swimming frequency and proximity to water body were observed to be the most associated risk factor to S. mansoni infection. Conclusion: The study showed that S. mansoni is an ongoing health problem in Gorgora. Different fresh water snails with a potential of transmitting diseases of human and veterinary importance that requires attention had been identified. Longitudinal and molecular study on Biomphalaria pfeifferi infection rate as well as susceptibility to schistosome infection is recommended.

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Current Status of Schistosoma mansoni Infections and Associated Risk Factors among Students in Gorgora Town, Northwest Ethiopia

ISRN Infectious Diseases ◽

10.5402/2013/636103 ◽

2013 ◽

Vol 2013 ◽

pp. 1-7 ◽

Cited By ~ 15

Author(s):

Tarko Essa ◽

Yemane Birhane ◽

Mengistu Endris ◽

Asmeret Moges ◽

Feleke Moges

Keyword(s):

Risk Factors ◽

Intestinal Parasites ◽

Open Water ◽

Water Source ◽

Northwest Ethiopia ◽

Current Status ◽

Stool Examination ◽

Water Contact ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Associated Risk Factors

Background and Objective. Schistosomiasis is highly prevalent in tropics and causes morbidity and mortality in developing countries including Ethiopia. This study is aimed to assess the current status of S. mansoni infections and associated risk factors among students in Gorgora town, Northwest Ethiopia. Method. A cross-sectional study was conducted from October 2010 to November 2010 at Gorgora, Northwest Ethiopia. All students (579) present during the study period were enrolled. Pretested questionnaires were used to collect sociodemographic data and predisposing factors. Stool examination was performed using wet mount and Kato-Katz techniques. Data were entered and analysed using SPSS version 20.0 statistical software. Result. Among 579 students enrolled, 291 (50.3%) were positive for one or more intestinal parasites. Prevalence of S. mansoni was found to be 20.6% with mean intensity of infection (125 eggs per gram of feces). Lack of awareness and water contact habits such as frequent swimming in the open water source, agricultural activities on bare foot, and washing clothes were also associated with high risk of S. mansoni infection. Conclusion. Even though there seems to be a decline in the prevalence of S. mansoni infections in the study area, the problem still persists and affects students significantly. Therefore, therapeutic intervention and health education are needed.

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A Five-Year Trend of Intestinal Parasite Prevalence among Students Attending Clinic at University of Gondar, Northwest Ethiopia

Journal of Parasitology Research ◽

10.1155/2021/8897935 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 2021 ◽

pp. 1-5

Author(s):

Adane Derso ◽

Gizachew Yenealem ◽

Ayenew Addisu

Keyword(s):

Intestinal Parasite ◽

Intestinal Parasites ◽

Parasitic Infection ◽

Parasite Prevalence ◽

Cross Sectional Study ◽

Northwest Ethiopia ◽

Parasitic Infections ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Intestinal Parasitic Infections ◽

The University

Background. Intestinal parasitic infections are the cause of the highest worldwide infectious disease and the major public health problems in developing countries. Among the cases, children and younger age are at high risk and the major victims. The aim of this study was to assess the five-year trend of intestinal parasite prevalence among University of Gondar students. Method. A retrospective cross-sectional study was conducted to assess the trend of intestinal parasite prevalence among students at the University of Gondar. The data was collected from students who have studied at the University of Gondar from 2014 to 2018 and who visited the student’s clinic and had recorded results of stool sample diagnosis on the laboratory logbook. Stool specimens were examined using direct saline wet mount methods. The data was analyzed by using SPSS version 20 software, and P value < 0.05 was considered as statistically significant. Moreover, chi-square was used to assess the association of different variables. Result. During the study period, a total of 6244 stool samples were requested for intestinal parasite diagnosis and it was found that 2850 specimens were positive for intestinal parasites, representing an overall prevalence of 45.6% with a fluctuating trend. Ten different parasites were reported with Entamoeba histolytica/dispar (20.3%) and Giardia lamblia (8.2%), the most frequently detected intestinal parasites. The prevalence of intestinal parasitic infections was higher in males (35.4%) than females (10.2%) ( P = 0.02 ). Conclusions. Intestinal parasitic infection was highly prevalent, and there were fluctuations in the prevalence of intestinal parasites from 2014 to 2018. Environmental sanitation improvement and health education schemes at the University of Gondar can be considered quite indispensable for the prevention and control of parasitic infections in the area.

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Circulating Cytokine Profiles of Polyparasitized Individuals in Gabon.

10.21203/rs.3.rs-24917/v2 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Noé Patrick M'Bondoukwé ◽

Reinne Moutongo ◽

Komi Gbédandé ◽

Jacques Mari Ndong Ngomo ◽

Tatiana Hountohotegbe ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Intestinal Parasites ◽

Parasitic Infections ◽

Asymptomatic Malaria ◽

Intestinal Protozoan ◽

Intestinal Protozoa ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Immune Mediated ◽

Parasitological Diagnosis ◽

Tnf Α ◽

Α Level

Abstract Background: Malaria, blood-borne filarial worms and intestinal parasites are all endemic in Gabon. This geographical co-distribution leads to polyparasitism and consequently, the possibility of immune-mediated interactions between different parasite species. Intestinal protozoa and helminths could modulate anti-malarial immunity, for example, thereby potentially increasing or reducing susceptibility to malaria. Methods: Blood and stool samples were collected during cross-sectional surveys in five provinces of Gabon. Parasitological diagnosis was performed to detect plasmodial parasites, Loa loa, Mansonella perstans, intestinal helminths (STH) and protozoan parasites. Nested PCR was used to detect submicroscopic plasmodial infection in individuals with negative blood smears. Cytometric Bead Array was used to quatify interleukin (IL)-6, IL-10 and Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)-α in plasma of subjects with different parasitological profiles. Results: Median IL-6 and IL-10 levels and the median IL-10/TNF- α ration were all significantly higher among individuals with Plasmodium (P.) falciparum infection compared to other groups ( P ≤0.0001). The median TNF-α level and IL-10/IL-6 ratio were higher in subjects with STH ( P =0.09) and P. falciparum -intestinal protozoa co-infection ( P =0.04), respectively. IL-6 (r=-0.37; P ≤0.01) and IL-10 (r=-0.37; P ≤0.01) levels, and the IL-10/TNF-α ratio (r=-0.37; P ≤0.01) correlated negatively with age. Among children under five years old, the IL-10/TNF-α and IL-10/IL-6 ratios were higher in those with intestinal protozoan infections compared to uninfected children. The IL-10/TNF-α ratio was also higher in children aged 5-15 years and in adults harbouring blood-borne filariae compared to their control counterparts, whereas the IL-10/IL-6 ratio was lower in those aged 5-15 years with filariae and intestinal parasites but higher in adults with intestinal parasitic infections. Conclusion: Asymptomatic malaria is associated with a strong polarization towards a regulatory immune response, presenting high circulating levels of IL-10. P. falciparum/intestinal protozoa co-infections are associated with an enhanced IL-10 response. Immunity against malaria could differ according to age and carriage of other parasites.

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What are Hidden Facts behind Intestinal Parasitic Infections in Ilam City?

Infectious Disorders - Drug Targets ◽

10.2174/1871526518666180508125418 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 19 (3) ◽

pp. 284-287

Author(s):

S. Viesy ◽

J. Abdi ◽

Z. Rezaei

Keyword(s):

Public Health ◽

Intestinal Parasites ◽

Parasitic Infection ◽

Public Health Education ◽

Health Problems ◽

Parasitic Infections ◽

Blastocystis Hominis ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Intestinal Parasitic Infections ◽

Number Of Patients

Background: Intestinal parasitic infections are the one of the most common health problems in developing countries. Objective: A number of patients die annually due to complications caused by these parasites.Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the rate and type of parasitic infections, determine the factors affecting them in Ilam city and also provide strategies to prevent them.In this descriptive cross-sectional study conducted in one of the Ilam labs in 2016, 417 stool specimens were randomly collected. All specimens were examined using direct and ethanol formaldehyde.Suspect specimens were examined using Trichrom staining. Demographic information was also recorded in a questionnaire, and finally the results were analyzed using statistical software SPSS 20.The data were then compared with Chi-square test. Results: Out of the 417 patients examined, 59 (14.1%) were infected with intestinal parasites. The type of parasitic infection in 9.4% was Blastocystis hominis, 3.6% Entamoeba coli, 0.5% Entamoeba histolytica, 0.5% Giardia and 0.2% Trichomonas hominis. Conclusion: Despite the improvement of public health, parasitic infections are still considered as one of the health problems in the city of Ilam. Therefore, proper planning, public health education, raising the level of health in the area and the provision of safe drinking water are some of the ways to reduce parasitic infections in the region.

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