Social Class Differences in Mental Retardation and Subnormality

Social class and regional differences in mental retardation were studied in a birth cohort of 12000 children followed up until the age of 14. The incidence of severe mental retardation IQ<50 was significantly higher in farming families and in less developed areas, which is in agreement with the fact that a greater part of the population in these areas belong to social class IV and farmers. The obvious explanation for the higher incidence of severe mental retardation among farmers is an excess of older mothers in this group. In the group of severe mental retardation, paternal unemployment was also statistically, significantly more frequent than among the others. Mild mental retardation, IQ 50–70, was significantly higher in all classes other than I+II and mental subnormality, IQ 71–85 was higher in social classes III and IV. The other less favourable social conditions, which were statistically more frequent in the families of the mentally subnormal, were that: the father had died, was unemployed, on sick leave or receiveing a pension and the mother was not living at home, was unemployed, or was on sick leave or receiving a pension. The incidence of mental subnormality was significantly higher in more developed areas, in spite of the fact that the members of social class IV were less and those of classes I+II more numerous than elsewhere. One probable explanation for the higher incidence of mild mental retardation and mental subnormality in the lower social classes, is found in socio-familial factors, and, with regard to the excess of these conditions in urban areas, in either the difference in socio-cultural factors or in an eargerness to diagnose these conditions. When only the cases of mental retardation, for which no risk factor or aetiology was known, were considered, a statistically significant difference was only found in mild mental retardation and mental subnormality; the incidence of these conditions being higher in social class IV than in I+II.

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HEAD CIRCUMFERENCE, MENTAL RETARDATION, AND GROWTH FAILURE

PEDIATRICS ◽

10.1542/peds.36.1.62 ◽

1965 ◽

Vol 36 (1) ◽

pp. 62-66

Author(s):

Edward J. O'Connell ◽

Robert H. Feldt ◽

Gunnar B. Stickler

Keyword(s):

Mental Retardation ◽

Head Circumference ◽

Growth Failure ◽

Clinical Impression ◽

Severe Mental Retardation ◽

Small Head ◽

The Mean ◽

Standard Deviations ◽

Mental Subnormality ◽

Age And Sex

The purpose of this study was to re-affirm our clinical impression that non-institutionalized children whose head circumference was below minus 2 standard deviations were mentally subnormal and frequently had growth failure. A group of 134 children with a head circumference below minus 2 standard deviations from the mean were studied, and all but one were mentally subnormal. The most severe mental retardation was noted in the group of children with a head circumference of minus 4 standard deviations or below. We found, as have others, that children with mental retardation have height and weights below the expected norm and that children with a head circumference below minus 2 standard deviations have even lower mean heights and weights. The head circumference of 31 children with growth failure and normal intelligence was normal for age and sex, therefore disproving the concept that the abnormally small child has a proportionally small head. In the child with growth failure, should the head be proportionally small (below minus 2 standard deviations), mental subnormality should be suspected. We feel that the head circumference measurement has taken on new clinical significance in that our data support its use in suspecting the association of mental subnormality in children with growth failure and a head circumference of below minus 2 standard deviations from the mean for age and sex.

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Mental Retardation: Biologic Aspects of Concern to Pediatricians

Pediatrics in Review ◽

10.1542/pir.2.2.41 ◽

1980 ◽

Vol 2 (2) ◽

pp. 41-50

Author(s):

John M. Opitz

Keyword(s):

Mental Retardation ◽

Genetic Counseling ◽

Head Circumference ◽

Metabolic Diseases ◽

Klinefelter Syndrome ◽

Past History ◽

The United States ◽

Outpatient Basis ◽

Severe Mental Retardation ◽

Mild Mental Retardation

1. Approximately 3% of the population (6 to 7 million persons in the United States) is mentally retarded. Of these, severe mental retardation (IQ <50) occurs in about 10% (3 or 4 per 1,000 persons) and mild mental retardation (IQ 50 to 70) in 90%. 2. The high familial occurrence, the continuously variable phenotype shading into normality, and various genetic studies suggest that most of mild mental retardation represents the left end of the normal IQ distribution curve. Virtually no such cases can be found in the group of the severely retarded, either within or outside the institutions, suggesting that the majority of severe mental retardation represents discontinuous phenotypes due to chromosomal, environmental, mendelian, and multifactorial causes. 3. Some mild mental retardation represents syndromal occurrence (ie, mild PKU, rubella syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome); however, in most cases no anomalies are found, chromosomes are normal, height and head circumference fall within normal limits, and few have neurologic deficits, such as cerebral palsy and/or seizures. In the mildly retarded, personal, emotional and psychosocial problems predominate. The severely retarded are a biologically different group with a high incidence of gross neurologic disturbances, growth failure, abnormal head circumference, single or multiple malformations, and metabolic diseases. 4. The severely retarded are generally infertile, the mild retarded less fertile than average; however, a small minority among the latter contributes a disproportionately large number of retarded offspring to the next generation. 5. Most mental retardation can be evaluated on an outpatient basis for causal, pathogenetic, and prognostic factors. The evaluation can be economic, quick, reliable, painless, and efficient in most instances; however, CNS degenerative diseases may require a brief inpatient stay for biochemical evaluation. By all odds the most informative items in the work-up of the retarded are the (family and past) history and the (physical and neurologic) examination. Metabolic screening is usually not indicated in the malformed, neither are cytogenetic studies in the nonmalformed. 6. All patients with mental retardation deserve a diagnostic/causal evaluation and their families prognostic/genetic counseling. 7. Some 70% of mental retardation in the general population can be attributed to genetic causes. Genetic counseling in severe mental retardation is to prevent recurrence in siblings; in the mildly retarded much greater emphasis is placed on the prevention of retarded offspring.

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AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF WITKIN'S DIMENSION IN RELATION TO SOCIAL CLASS, PERSONALITY FACTORS AND PIAGETIAN TESTS

Social Behavior and Personality An International Journal ◽

10.2224/sbp.1977.5.1.87 ◽

1977 ◽

Vol 5 (1) ◽

pp. 87-91 ◽

Cited By ~ 7

Author(s):

P. A. S. Ghuman

Keyword(s):

Social Class ◽

Primary Schools ◽

Social Classes ◽

Personality Factors ◽

Cognitive Variables ◽

Factor B ◽

Personality Variables ◽

Significant Difference ◽

Independence Dimension ◽

Better Than

The research explores the relationships between the cognitive variables, as measured by Piagetian tests and standard Raven Matrices, and Witkin's Field-dependence/independence dimension (FD-FID). The association between sex, social class, and the personality variables, as assessed by the Children's Personality Questionnaire (CPQ) devised by Porter and Cattell, with the Witkin's dimension is also investigated. The sample consisted of sixty children of 11 to 12 years of age from two primary schools in Wales. The results show that there are significant correlations between Witkin's dimension and the cognitive variables including factor B of CPQ. However, no significant correlations were found between the personality traits and Witkin's dimension. There was a significant difference (p < 0.1) between the two social classes; middle-class children performed better than working-class children; but no significant difference was found between the boys and girls.

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Genetic influences on mild mental retardation: concepts, findings and research implications

Journal of Biosocial Science ◽

10.1017/s0021932000022562 ◽

1996 ◽

Vol 28 (4) ◽

pp. 509-526 ◽

Cited By ~ 18

Author(s):

Michael Rutter ◽

Emily Simonoff ◽

Robert Plomin

Keyword(s):

Mental Retardation ◽

Retarded Child ◽

Recurrence Risk ◽

Genetic Influences ◽

Strong Tendency ◽

Normal Variation ◽

Severe Mental Retardation ◽

Mild Mental Retardation ◽

Group Approach

It has long been known that mild mental retardation (meaning that associated with an IQ in the 50–69 range) shows a strong tendency to run in families and that there is a much increased recurrence risk if either a parent or a sib has mental retardation. For example, Reed & Reed (1965) found that, having had one retarded child, the chance of a further retarded child was 6% if both parents and their sibs were ‘normal’, 13% if both parents were normal but one had a retarded sib, 20% if one parent was retarded, and 42% if both were retarded. A somewhat similar gradient was found in the more recent study by Bundey, Thake & Todd (1989). The appreciation that mild mental retardation was so strongly familial had led Lewis (1933) some years earlier to refer to it as ’subcultural‘ (meaning that it was a normal variation), in order to differentiate it from severe mental retardation, which was viewed as ‘pathological’. Penrose (1938, 1963) made the same classificatory distinction and the utility of a two-group approach became generally accepted (Burack, 1990).

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Serum S100B and intelligence in children with Down syndrome

Paediatrica Indonesiana ◽

10.14238/pi59.3.2019.125-9 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 59 (3) ◽

pp. 125-9

Author(s):

Nurul Noviarisa ◽

Eva Chundrayetti ◽

Gustina Lubis

Keyword(s):

Down Syndrome ◽

Mental Retardation ◽

Chromosome Analysis ◽

Chromosome 21 ◽

Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay ◽

Severe Mental Retardation ◽

Mild Mental Retardation ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Children With Down Syndrome ◽

The Mean

Background Down syndrome is characterized by physical and mental retardation and caused by chromosome 21 (Hsa21) abnormalities. The S100B is a protein that is overproduced in Down syndrome due to overexpression of chromosome 21 genes. Comorbidities caused by S100B in Down syndrome are cognitive deterioration and early onset of dementia. Objective To assess for a possible association between S100B protein and intelligence levels in children with Down syndrome. Method This cross-sectional study included students in a special needs school in Padang, West Sumatera, who had the characteristic clinical features of Down syndrome and trisomy 21 by chromosome analysis. Examination of S100B levels was carried out using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method. Intelligence quotient (IQ) was measured using the 4th edition of the Wechlser Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV) method. Results A total of 39 children with Down syndrome participated in the study. There were 25 children with mild mental retardation and 15 children with moderate-severe mental retardation. The mean S100B levels were not significantly different between groups [479.1 (SD 204) pg/mL in the mild mental retardation group and 458.7 (SD 158) pg/mL in the moderate-severe mental retardation group; P > 0.05]. The mean S100B level was significantly higher in subjects aged ≤ 10 years than in those aged > 10 years [566.9 (SD 210.0) pg/mL and 434.4 (SD 167.2) pg/mL, respectively (P<0.05)]. Conclusion There is no association between S100B and intelligence levels in children with Down syndrome. There is a significant association between higher S100B levels and younger age in children with Down syndrome.

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Undernutrition and Adiposity in Children and Adolescents: A Nutrition Paradox in Bangladesh

Ibrahim Medical College Journal ◽

10.3329/imcj.v6i1.14710 ◽

2013 ◽

Vol 6 (1) ◽

pp. 1-8 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

M Abu Sayeed ◽

Mir Masudur Rhaman ◽

Akhter Banu ◽

Hajera Mahtab

Keyword(s):

Social Class ◽

Children And Adolescents ◽

Urban Areas ◽

Large Scale ◽

Family Income ◽

Overweight And Obesity ◽

High Density Lipoproteins ◽

The Poor ◽

Significant Difference ◽

The Rich

Many studies reported a high prevalence of undernutrition in the under-5 children in Bangladesh. But very few information are available about undernutrition and adiposity among school children and adolescents in Bangladesh. This study addressed the prevalence of undernutrition and obesity among school going children and adolescents. A total of 15 secondary schools were purposively selected from rural, suburban and urban areas. The teachers were detailed about the study protocol. Then the teachers volunteered to register the eligible (age 10 18y) students for the study. Each students parent was interviewed for family income. Height (ht), weight (wt), mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC) and blood pressure were taken. Fasting blood samples were collected for fasting plasma glucose, total cholesterol (Chol), triglycerides (TG), high-density lipoproteins (HDL). Body mass index (BMI) was calculated (ht/wt in met. sq) for diagnosis of undernutrition (BMI <18.5), normal weight (BMI 18.5 22.9) overweight (BMI 23.0 25.0) and obesity (BMI >25.0). A total of 2151 (m-1063, f-1088) students volunteered the study. Of them, the poor, middle and rich social classes were 25.4, 53.1 and 21.5%, respectively. Overall, the prevalence of underweight, normal, overweight and obesity were 57.4%, 35.0%, 4.9% and 2.7%, respectively. For gender comparison, there has been no significant difference of BMI between boys and girls. By social class, the prevalence of underweight was significantly higher in the poor than in the rich (62.2% v. 43.6%) and obesity was higher in the rich than in the poor (6.1% v. 1.2%) [for both, p<0.001]. Logistic regression showed that the participants from urban (OR 1.51, 95% CI 1.03 2.22) and the rich (OR 2.03, 95% CI 1.24 3.33) social class had excess risk for obesity. The risk for undernutrition was found just reverse. Undernutrition was found most prevalent among the rural students and among the poor social class; whereas, prevalence of overweight and obesity appears to be increasing with urbanization and increasing family income. Thus, the study showed a nutrition paradox adiposity in the midst of many undernourished children and adolescents in Bangladesh. Further study may be undertaken in a large scale to establish diagnostic criteria for age specific nutrition assessment in Bangladesh. A prospective children cohort may help assessing the cut-offs for unhealthy sequels of undernutrition and adiposity. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/imcj.v6i1.14710 Ibrahim Med. Coll. J. 2012; 6(1): 1-8

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Parent-Adolescent Relationship in Context of Gender of Adolescents and Social Class of Families: A Case Study of GBPUAT, Uttarakhand

Current Journal of Applied Science and Technology ◽

10.9734/cjast/2019/v36i230226 ◽

2019 ◽

pp. 1-9

Author(s):

Arti Kumari ◽

Ritu Singh ◽

Manisha Mehra ◽

Amit Kumar Mishra

Keyword(s):

Social Class ◽

Class Ii ◽

Associate Professor ◽

Social Classes ◽

Class I ◽

Class Iii ◽

The Social ◽

The University ◽

Adolescent Relationship ◽

Class Iv

The present study investigated gender differences in adolescents’ perceptions of parent-adolescent relationship among families (Class I, Class II, Class III, and Class IV) of G.B Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand across their gender. Families falling under social class I of the university had parent(s) working as Professor and Associate Professor in the university; those falling under social class II had parent(s) working as Assistant Professor or equivalent and Doctor in the university; those falling under social class III had parent(s) working as Accountant, Supervisor, Lab Technician and Clerk in the university and those falling under social class IV had parent(s) working as Attendant, Driver, Peon, CRC laborer, Gardner and Sweeper. In the present study, forty adolescents were randomly selected from each social class of which 63 were girls and 97 boys making a total of 160 respondents. Respondents from each socio- economic class were split across gender to analyze difference in perception of their relationship with parents. Parent-child Relationship Scale (PCRS) by Dr Nalini Rao (1989) was administered with the adolescents. The present findings revealed interesting gender variations in parent–adolescent relationship across four social classes of families under study. Boys and girls both, from all the social classes reported no gender difference in their parents’ practice of symbolic punishment. On the contrary, in comparison to boys, girls from all the social classes of families reported their parents, mother and father both, to be significantly more protecting. Second striking observation was that boys and girls from social class I, II and III reported no gender based parental (mother and father) differential attitude on symbolic reward, loving, object reward, rejecting, object punishment, demanding, indifferent and neglecting domains of parent-adolescent relationship. However, girls from social class IV perceived their parents to be significantly more rejecting, indifferent and neglecting and mothers in particular to be more demanding and practicing object punishment. Whereas, boys from social class IV reported parents to be significantly more symbolically rewarding, loving and object rewarding and fathers in particular to be more demanding and practicing object punishment.

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