scholarly journals Redox and autonomic responses to acute exercise-post recovery following Opuntia ficus-indica juice intake in physically active women

2021 ◽  
Vol 18 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Marianna Bellafiore ◽  
Anna Maria Pintaudi ◽  
Ewan Thomas ◽  
Luisa Tesoriere ◽  
Antonino Bianco ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Placebo Group ◽  
Acute Exercise ◽  
Redox Balance ◽  
Cycle Ergometer ◽  
Double Blind ◽  
Opuntia Ficus Indica ◽  
Physically Active ◽  
Cycle Ergometer Test ◽  
Post Test ◽  
Total Antioxidant

Abstract Background The aim of this study was to investigate if the supplementation with Opuntia ficus-indica (OFI) juice may affect plasma redox balance and heart rate variability (HRV) parameters following a maximal effort test, in young physically active women. Methods A randomized, double blind, placebo controlled and crossover study comprising eight women (23.25 ± 2.95 years, 54.13 ± 9.05 kg, 157.75 ± 0.66 cm and BMI of 21.69 ± 0.66 kg/m2) was carried out. A juice containing OFI diluted in water and a Placebo solution were supplied (170 ml; OFI = 50 ml of OFI juice + 120 ml of water; Placebo = 170 ml beverage without Vitamin C and indicaxanthin). Participants consumed the OFI juice or Placebo beverage every day for 3 days, before performing a maximal cycle ergometer test, and for 2 consecutive days after the test. Plasma hydroperoxides and total antioxidant capacity (PAT), Skin Carotenoid Score (SCS) and HRV variables (LF, HF, LF/HF and rMSSD) were recorded at different time points. Results The OFI group showed significantly lower levels of hydroperoxides compared to the Placebo group in pre-test, post-test and 48-h post-test. PAT values of the OFI group significantly increased compared to those of the Placebo group in pre-test and 48-h post-test. SCS did not differ between groups. LF was significantly lower in the OFI group 24-h after the end of the test, whereas rMSSD was significantly higher in the OFI group 48-h post-test. Conclusion OFI supplementation decreased the oxidative stress induced by intense exercise and improved autonomic balance in physically active women.

Effect of beta-blockade on the drift in O2 consumption during prolonged exercise

1988 ◽  
Vol 64 (2) ◽  
pp. 753-758 ◽  
Author(s):  
J. K. Kalis ◽  
B. J. Freund ◽  
M. J. Joyner ◽  
S. M. Jilka ◽  
J. Nittolo ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Heart Rate ◽  
Minute Ventilation ◽  
Cycle Ergometer ◽  
Beta Blockade ◽  
Adrenergic Blockade ◽  
Maximal Heart Rate ◽  
O2 Consumption ◽  
Double Blind ◽  
Cycle Ergometer Test ◽  
Ergometer Test

The effect of beta-adrenergic blockade on the drift in O2 consumption (VO2 drift) typically observed during prolonged constant-rate exercise was studied in 14 healthy males in moderate heat at 40% of maximal O2 consumption (VO2max). After an initial maximum cycle ergometer test to determine the subjects' control VO2max, subjects were administered each of three medications: placebo, atenolol (100 mg once daily), and propranolol (80 mg twice daily), in a randomized double-blind fashion. Each medication period was 5 days in length and was followed by a 4-day washout period. On the 3rd day of each medication period, subjects performed a maximal cycle ergometer test. On the final day of each medication period, subjects exercised at 40% of their control VO2max for 90 min on a cycle ergometer in a warm (31.7 +/- 0.3 degrees C) moderately humid (44.7 +/- 4.7%) environment. beta-Blockade caused significant (P less than 0.05) reductions in VO2max, maximal minute ventilation (VEmax), maximal heart rate (HRmax), and maximal exercise time. Significantly greater decreases in VO2max, VEmax, and HRmax were associated with the propranolol compared with the atenolol treatment. During the 90-min submaximal rides, beta-blockade significantly reduced heart rate. Substantially lower values for O2 consumption (VO2) and minute ventilation (VE) were observed with propranolol compared with atenolol or placebo. Furthermore, VO2 drift and HR drift were observed under atenolol and placebo conditions but not with propranolol. Respiratory exchange ratio decreased significantly over time during the placebo and atenolol trials but did not change during the propranolol trial.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Endurance training alters basal erythrocyte MCT-1 contents and affects the lactate distribution between plasma and red blood cells in T2DM men following maximal exercise

2015 ◽  
Vol 93 (6) ◽  
pp. 413-419 ◽  
Author(s):  
David Opitz ◽  
Edward Lenzen ◽  
Andreas Opiolka ◽  
Melanie Redmann ◽  
Martin Hellmich ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Endurance Training ◽  
Acute Exercise ◽  
Maximal Exercise ◽  
Cycle Ergometer ◽  
Monocarboxylate Transporter ◽  
Acute Bout ◽  
Cycle Ergometer Test ◽  
Lactate Levels ◽  
Ergometer Test

Chronic elevated lactate levels are associated with insulin resistance in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Furthermore, lactacidosis plays a role in limiting physical performance. Erythrocytes, which take up lactate via monocarboxylate transporter (MCT) proteins, may help transport lactate within the blood from lactate-producing to lactate-consuming organs. This study investigates whether cycling endurance training (3 times/week for 3 months) alters the basal erythrocyte content of MCT-1, and whether it affects lactate distribution kinetics in the blood of T2DM men (n = 10, years = 61 ± 9, body mass index = 31 ± 3 kg/m2) following maximal exercise (WHO step-incremental cycle ergometer test). Immunohistochemical staining indicated that basal erythrocyte contents of MCT-1 protein were up-regulated (+90%, P = 0.011) post-training. Erythrocyte and plasma lactate increased from before acute exercise (= resting values) to physical exhaustion pre- as well as post-training (pre-training: +309%, P = 0.004; +360%, P < 0.001; post-training: +318%, P = 0.008; +300%, P < 0.001), and did not significantly decrease during 5 min recovery. The lactate ratio (erythrocytes:plasma) remained unchanged after acute exercise pre-training, but was significantly increased after 5 min recovery post-training (compared with the resting value) (+22%, P = 0.022). The results suggest an increased time-delayed influx of lactate into erythrocytes following an acute bout of exercise in endurance-trained diabetic men.

scholarly journals The Effect of Acute Intense Exercise on Activity of Antioxidant Enzymes in Smokers and Non-smokers

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Hadi Nobari ◽  
Hamzeh Abdi nejad ◽  
Mina Ahmadi ◽  
Soghra Mohseni ◽  
Mehdi Kargarfard ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Oxidative Stress ◽  
Recovery Time ◽  
Acute Exercise ◽  
Smoking Habit ◽  
Antioxidant Enzyme Activity ◽  
Intense Exercise ◽  
Significant Difference ◽  
Post Test ◽  
Total Antioxidant ◽  
Exercise Induced

Acute intense exercise causes significant oxidative stress and consequently an increase in total antioxidant capacity; however, the mechanisms and combined effects of intense exercise and smoking on oxidative stress among active and non-active smokers are not clear. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of acute intense exercise on antioxidant enzyme activity responses in active and non-active individuals exposed to cigarette smoke. The study included 40 subjects who were equally classified as: smokers that did exercise (SE), smokers that did not do exercise (SnE), non-smokers that did exercise (NSE), and non-smokers that did not do exercise (NSnE). The adjusted Astrand test was used to exhaust the subjects. Salivary enzymes of peroxidase (POX), catalase (CAT), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were measured, by spectrophotometry methods, at 3 different time points: pre-test (TP1), post-test (TP2), and one hour after finishing the test (TP3). Significant (p&lt;0.05) group x time interactions were found for the three enzymes. Salivary POX, CAT and SOD increased in all groups from TP1 to TP2 and decreased from TP2 to TP3. Only the NSE showed a significant difference between TP1 to TP3 in POX and SOD by +0.011 ± 0.007 and +0.075 ± 0.02 (U/ml), respectively. The NSE showed significantly higher levels of POX, CAT and SOD in TP2 compared to the other groups. Furthermore, NSE and NSnE had higher levels of POX, CAT and SOD in TP1 and TP3 (p&lt;0.05) compared with SE and SnE. Only in the NSnE, were no differences observed in CAT compared with SE and SnE in TP3. These results showed that the antioxidant level at rest and in the recovery time after the acute intense exercise was lower in SE and SnE compared with NSE and NSnE, suggesting that smoking habit may reduce the ameliorating effect of regular physical activity on acute exercise-induced oxidative stress.

scholarly journals Exercise and Redox Status Responses Following Alpha-Lipoic Acid Supplementation in G6PD Deficient Individuals

Antioxidants ◽  
2018 ◽  
Vol 7 (11) ◽  
pp. 162 ◽  
Author(s):  
Kalliopi Georgakouli ◽  
Ioannis Fatouros ◽  
Apostolos Fragkos ◽  
Theofanis Tzatzakis ◽  
Chariklia Deli ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Uric Acid ◽  
Lipoic Acid ◽  
G6pd Deficiency ◽  
Acute Exercise ◽  
Thiobarbituric Acid ◽  
Redox Balance ◽  
Redox Status ◽  
Protein Carbonyls ◽  
Alpha Lipoic Acid ◽  
Double Blind

G6PD deficiency renders cells more susceptible to oxidative insults, while antioxidant dietary supplementation could restore redox balance and ameliorate exercise-induced oxidative stress. To examine the effects of alpha-lipoic acid (ALA) supplementation on redox status indices in G6PD deficient individuals, eight male adults with G6PD deficiency (D) participated in this randomized double-blind placebo-controlled crossover trial. Participants were randomly assigned to receive ALA (600 mg/day) or placebo for 4 weeks separated by a 4-week washout period. Before and at the end of each treatment period, participants exercised following an exhaustive treadmill exercise protocol. Blood samples were obtained before (at rest), immediately after and 1h after exercise for later analysis of total antioxidant capacity (TAC), uric acid, bilirubin, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and protein carbonyls (PC). ALA resulted in significantly increased resting TAC and bilirubin concentrations. Moreover, TAC increased immediately and 1h after exercise following both treatment periods, whereas bilirubin increased immediately after and 1h after exercise following only ALA. No significant change in uric acid, TBARS or PC was observed at any time point. ALA supplementation for 4 weeks may enhance antioxidant status in G6PD individuals; however, it does not affect redox responses to acute exercise until exhaustion or exercise performance.

scholarly journals Krill-Oil-Dependent Increases in HS-Omega-3 Index, Plasma Choline and Antioxidant Capacity in Well-Conditioned Power Training Athletes

Nutrients ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 13 (12) ◽  
pp. 4237
Author(s):  
Franchek Drobnic ◽  
Andreas B. Storsve ◽  
Lena Burri ◽  
Yunpeng Ding ◽  
Montserrat Banquells ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Placebo Group ◽  
Antioxidant Capacity ◽  
Power Training ◽  
Krill Oil ◽  
Omega 3 ◽  
Double Blind ◽  
Post Exercise ◽  
Nutritional Strategy ◽  
Total Antioxidant ◽  
Double Blind Design

There is evidence that both omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs) and choline can influence sports performance, but information establishing their combined effects when given in the form of krill oil during power training protocols is missing. The purpose of this study was therefore to characterize n-3 PUFA and choline profiles after a one-hour period of high-intensity physical workout after 12 weeks of supplementation. Thirty-five healthy power training athletes received either 2.5 g/day of Neptune krill oilTM (550 mg EPA/DHA and 150 mg choline) or olive oil (placebo) in a randomized double-blind design. After 12 weeks, only the krill oil group showed a significant HS-Omega-3 Index increase from 4.82 to 6.77% and a reduction in the ARA/EPA ratio (from 50.72 to 13.61%) (p < 0.001). The krill oil group showed significantly higher recovery of choline concentrations relative to the placebo group from the end of the first to the beginning of the second exercise test (p = 0.04) and an 8% decrease in total antioxidant capacity post-exercise versus 21% in the placebo group (p = 0.35). In conclusion, krill oil can be used as a nutritional strategy for increasing the HS-Omega-3 Index, recover choline concentrations and address oxidative stress after intense power trainings.

scholarly journals Antioxidant Responses in Hypertensive Postmenopausal Women after Acute Beetroot Juice Ingestion and Aerobic Exercise: Double Blind and Placebo-Controlled Crossover Trial

2021 ◽  
Vol 2021 ◽  
pp. 1-9
Author(s):  
Ana Luiza Amaral ◽  
Igor Moraes Mariano ◽  
Victor Hugo V. Carrijo ◽  
Tállita Cristina F. de Souza ◽  
Adriele V. de Souza ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Aerobic Exercise ◽  
Postmenopausal Women ◽  
Acute Exercise ◽  
Area Under The Curve ◽  
Beetroot Juice ◽  
Double Blind ◽  
Antioxidant Power ◽  
Stress Markers ◽  
Total Antioxidant ◽  
Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power

This study is aimed to analyze the effect of different nitrate concentrations [NO3-] present in beetroot juice (BJ) on salivary oxidative stress markers after acute exercise performance in hypertensive postmenopausal women. Thirteen hypertensive postmenopausal women participated in three experimental sessions, taking different beverages: noncaloric orange flavored drink (OFD), low nitrate (low-NO3-) BJ, and high nitrate (high-NO3-) BJ. The participants performed aerobic exercise on a treadmill, at 65–70% of heart rate reserve (HRR), for 40 min. Saliva samples were collected after an overnight fast, 10 minutes before BJ ingestion at 7 : 20 am (0 ′ ), 120 minutes after beverages ingestion (130 ′ ), immediately after exercise (170 ′ ), and 90 min after exercise (260 ′ ). Salivary total protein (TP), catalase activity (CAT), reduced glutathione (GSH), and total antioxidant capacity by ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) concentrations were analyzed. No interaction (session ∗ time) was found among three sessions over time. Catalase area under the curve (AUC) was lower after both low-NO3- and high-NO3- consumption ( p < 0.001 ), and GSH AUC was lower after high-NO3- ( p < 0.001 ) compared with OFD. So, the acute intake of BJ with aerobic exercise seems to decrease catalase (in high-NO3- and low-NO3-) and GSH (in high-NO3-), besides not interfering with FRAP in hypertensive postmenopausal women.

Influence of Aloe Arborescens Mill. Extract on Selected Parameters of Pro-oxidant-Antioxidant Equilibrium and Cytokine Synthesis in Rowers

2013 ◽  
Vol 23 (4) ◽  
pp. 388-398 ◽  
Author(s):  
Piotr Basta ◽  
Łucja Pilaczyńska-Szczȩśniak ◽  
Donata Woitas-Ślubowska ◽  
Anna Skarpańska-Stejnborn
Keyword(s):  
Placebo Group ◽  
Recovery Period ◽  
Thiobarbituric Acid ◽  
Creatine Kinase Activity ◽  
Double Blind Study ◽  
Double Blind ◽  
Maximum Test ◽  
Before And After ◽  
Total Antioxidant ◽  
Aloe Arborescens

This investigation examined the effect of supplementation with Biostimine, extract from aloe arborescens Mill. leaves, on the levels of pro-oxidant–antioxidant equilibrium markers and anti- and proinflammatory cytokines in rowers subjected to exhaustive exercise. This double-blind study included 18 members of the Polish Rowing Team. Subjects were randomly assigned to the supplemented group (n = 9), which received one ampoule of Biostimine once daily for 4 weeks, or to the placebo group (n = 9). Subjects performed a 2,000-meter-maximum test on a rowing ergometer at the beginning and end of the preparatory camp. Blood samples were obtained from the antecubital vein before each exercise test, 1 min after completing the test and after a 24-hr recovery period. Superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activity as well as the concentration of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) were assessed in erythrocytes. In addition, total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and creatine kinase activity were measured in plasma samples, and cytokine (IL-6, IL-10) concentrations were determined in the serum. Before and after Biostimine supplementation, exercise significantly increased the values of SOD, IL-6, IL-10, and TBARS in both groups. However, postexercise and recovery levels of TBARS were significantly lower in athletes receiving Biostimine than in controls. After supplementation, TAC was the only variable with the level being significantly higher in the supplemented group than in the placebo group. Consequently, we can conclude that Biostimine supplementation reduces the postexercise level of TBARS by increasing the antioxidant activity of plasma but has no effect on inflammatory markers.

scholarly journals The Effect of Acute Intense Exercise on Activity of Antioxidant Enzymes in Smokers and Non-Smokers

Biomolecules ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (2) ◽  
pp. 171
Author(s):  
Hadi Nobari ◽  
Hamzeh Abdi Nejad ◽  
Mehdi Kargarfard ◽  
Soghra Mohseni ◽  
Katsuhiko Suzuki ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Oxidative Stress ◽  
Recovery Time ◽  
Acute Exercise ◽  
Smoking Habit ◽  
Antioxidant Enzyme Activity ◽  
Intense Exercise ◽  
Significant Difference ◽  
Post Test ◽  
Total Antioxidant ◽  
Exercise Induced

Acute intense exercise causes significant oxidative stress and consequently an increase in total antioxidant capacity; however, the mechanisms and combined effects of intense exercise and smoking on oxidative stress among active and non-active smokers are not clear. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of acute intense exercise on antioxidant enzyme activity responses in active and non-active individuals exposed to cigarette smoke. The study included 40 subjects who were equally classified as: smokers that did exercise (SE), smokers that did not do exercise (SnE), non-smokers that did exercise (NSE), and non-smokers that did not do exercise (NSnE). The adjusted Astrand test was used to exhaust the subjects. Salivary enzymes of peroxidase (POX), catalase (CAT), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were measured, by spectrophotometry methods, at 3 different time points: pre-test (TP1), post-test (TP2), and one hour after finishing the test (TP3). Significant (p < 0.05) group x time interactions were found for the three enzymes. Salivary POX, CAT and SOD increased in all groups from TP1 to TP2 and decreased from TP2 to TP3. Only the NSE showed a significant difference between TP1 to TP3 in POX and SOD by +0.011 ± 0.007 and +0.075 ± 0.020 (U/mL), respectively. The NSE showed significantly higher activity of POX, CAT and SOD in TP2 compared to the other groups. Furthermore, NSE and NSnE had higher activity of POX, CAT and SOD in TP1 and TP3 (p < 0.05) compared with SE and SnE. Only in the NSnE, were no differences observed in CAT compared with SE and SnE in TP3. These results showed that the antioxidant activity at rest and in the recovery time after the acute intense exercise was lower in SE and SnE compared with NSE and NSnE, suggesting that smoking habit may reduce the ameliorating effect of regular physical activity on acute exercise-induced oxidative stress.

scholarly journals Effects of acute exercise on atherogenic lipids in untreated mild hypertensive patients

2009 ◽  
Vol 66 (4) ◽  
pp. 313-318 ◽  
Author(s):  
Zorica Caparevic ◽  
Nada Kostic ◽  
Vera Celic ◽  
Zoran Cosic ◽  
Djordje Marina ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Acute Exercise ◽  
Oxidized Ldl ◽  
Cycle Ergometer ◽  
Lipid Profiles ◽  
Hypertensive Patients ◽  
Cardiopulmonary Exercise ◽  
Cycle Ergometer Test ◽  
Mild Hypertensive ◽  
Ergometer Test ◽  
Atherogenic Lipid

Background/Aim. Exercise can positively influence risk factors associated with cardiovascular disease. The mechanisms by which exercise reduces atherogenic risk remain unknown. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of acute exercise (cardiopulmonary exercise cycle ergometer test) on atherogenic lipids in untreated mild hypertensive patients with or without hypercholesterolemia. This testing allows determination of exercise capacity, peak heart rate, and ventilation per minute (VE), peak oxygen uptake (pVO2) and exercise time (ET). Methods. The study group included 85 untreated mild hypertensive patients (according to VII Joint National Committee - JNC 7) divided into two subgroups: hypertensive hypercholesterolemic and hypertensive normocholesterolemic. The control group included 35 normotensive subjects divided into two subgroups: normotensive hypercholesterolemic and normotensive normocholesterolemic. Lipid profiles to determine were oxidized LDL (OxLDL) - a marker of oxidative stress, triglycerides, total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and HDL cholesterol, which were measured at rest and 30 minutes after the acute bout of cardiopulmonary exercise cycle ergometer test. Lipids profiles were measured by enzymatic methods. Oxidized LDL was determined by a commercially available sandwich ELISA (Mercodia AB, Uppsala, Sweden). C-reactive protein (CRP) was measured using chemiluminiscent methods (Immulite-DPC). Results. In our study OxLDL was significantly higher in hypertensive patients with atherogenic lipid profiles in basal condition, compared to the hypertensive patients without atherogenic lipid profiles and controls. There was a significant difference in CRP (p < 0.001) between hypercholesterolemics (hypertensive and normotensive) and normocholesterolemics (hypertensive and normotensive). We found increased OxLDL after exercise in both groups (hypertensive patients and normotensive), but only in the hypertensive hypercholesterolemic patients the difference was statistically significant (90.47 ? 15.31 vs. 105.94 ? 14.17 IU/L, p < 0.001). Systolic and diastolic blood pressures were significantly higher during exercise only in the hypertensive patients. There were significantly lower values of pVO2 only in hypertensive hypercholesterolemic patients. There were no significant differences between hypertensive and normotensive ones for ET and VE. In hypertensive ones we found after exercise a negative correlation between pVO2 and OxLDL (r = -0.473; p < 0.05), and pVO2 and CRP (r = -0.478; p < 0.05). We also found in normotensive normocholesterolemic patients a positive correlation between VE and systolic blood pressure (r = 0.420; p < 0.05), a negative correlation between VE and OxLDL (r = -0.421; p < 0.05), and VE and CRP (r = -0.561; p < 0.05). Conclusion. This study showed that acute exercise induces and increases oxidative stress only in untreated mild hypertensive patients with atherogenic lipid profiles. These results imply the need to normalize atherogenic lipid profile in untreated patients with mild hypertension in order to prevent an increased lipid peroxidation under acute exercise.

Effect of naloxone on perceived exertion and exercise capacity during maximal cycle ergometry

2002 ◽  
Vol 93 (6) ◽  
pp. 2023-2028 ◽  
Author(s):  
Anthony L. Sgherza ◽  
Kenneth Axen ◽  
Randi Fain ◽  
Robert S. Hoffman ◽  
Christopher C. Dunbar ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Exercise Capacity ◽  
Perceived Exertion ◽  
Minute Ventilation ◽  
Work Capacity ◽  
Cycle Ergometer ◽  
Endogenous Opioids ◽  
Opioid Antagonist ◽  
Double Blind ◽  
Cycle Ergometer Test ◽  
Physiological Limits

We assessed the effects of naloxone, an opioid antagonist, on exercise capacity in 13 men and 5 women (mean age = 30.1 yr, range = 21–35 yr) during a 25 W/min incremental cycle ergometer test to exhaustion on different days during familiarization trial and then after 30 mg (iv bolus) of naloxone or placebo (Pl) in a double-blind, crossover design. Minute ventilation (V˙e), O2 consumption (V˙o 2), CO2 production, and heart rate (HR) were monitored. Perceived exertion rating (0-10 scale) and venous samples for lactate were obtained each minute. Lactate and ventilatory thresholds were derived from lactate and gas-exchange data. Blood pressure was obtained before exercise, 5 min postinfusion, at maximum exercise, and 5 min postexercise. There were no control-Pl differences. The naloxone trial demonstrated decreased exercise time (96% Pl; P < 0.01), total cumulative work (96% Pl; P < 0.002), peakV˙o 2 (94% Pl; P < 0.02), and HR (96% Pl; P < 0.01). Other variables were unchanged. HR and V˙e were the same at the final common workload, but perceived exertion was higher (8.1 ± 0.5 vs. 7.1 ± 0.5) after naloxone than Pl ( P < 0.01). The threshold for effort perception amplification occurred at ∼60 ± 4% of Pl peakV˙o 2. Thus we conclude that peak work capacity was limited by perceived exertion, which can be attenuated by endogenous opioids rather than by physiological limits.

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