A comparison of the performance on extrinsic and intrinsic cartographic visualizations through correctness, response time and cognitive processing

The aim of this study was to compare the performance of two bivariate visualizations by measuring response correctness (error rate) and response time, and to identify the differences in cognitive processes involved in map-reading tasks by using eye-tracking methods. The present study is based on our previous research and the hypothesis that the use of different visualization methods may lead to significant cognitive-processing differences. We applied extrinsic and intrinsic visualizations in the study. Participants in the experiment were presented maps which depicted two variables (soil moisture and soil depth) and asked to identify the areas which displayed either a single condition (e.g., “find an area with low soil depth”) or both conditions (e.g., “find an area with high soil moisture and low soil depth”). The research sample was composed of 31 social sciences and humanities university students. The experiment was performed under laboratory conditions, and Hypothesis software was used for data collection. Eye-tracking data were collected for 23 of the participants. An SMI RED-m eye-tracker was used to determine whether either of the two visualization methods was more efficient for solving the given map-reading tasks. Our results showed that with the intrinsic visualization method, the participants spent significantly more time with the map legend. This result suggests that extrinsic and intrinsic visualizations induce different cognitive processes. The intrinsic method was observed to generally require more time and led to higher error rates. In summary, the extrinsic method was found to be more efficient than the intrinsic method, although the difference was less pronounced in the tasks which contained two variables, which proved to be better suited to intrinsic visualization.

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Exploring the Process of Reading During Writing Using Eye Tracking and Keystroke Logging

Written Communication ◽

10.1177/0741088318788070 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 35 (4) ◽

pp. 411-447 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

Milou J. R. de Smet ◽

Mariëlle Leijten ◽

Luuk Van Waes

Keyword(s):

Eye Tracking ◽

Cognitive Processes ◽

Professional Communication ◽

Time On Task ◽

Eye Tracker ◽

Process Data ◽

Reading Behavior ◽

Technical Procedure ◽

Text Production ◽

Correct Spelling

This study aims to explore the process of reading during writing. More specifically, it investigates whether a combination of keystroke logging data and eye tracking data yields a better understanding of cognitive processes underlying fluent and nonfluent text production. First, a technical procedure describes how writing process data from the keystroke logging program Inputlog are merged with reading process data from the Tobii TX300 eye tracker. Next, a theoretical schema on reading during writing is presented, which served as a basis for the observation context we created for our experiment. This schema was tested by observing 24 university students in professional communication (skilled writers) who typed short sentences that were manipulated to elicit fluent or nonfluent writing. The experimental sentences were organized into four different conditions, aiming at (a) fluent writing, (b) reflection about correct spelling of homophone verbs, (c) local revision, and (d) global revision. Results showed that it is possible to manipulate degrees of nonfluent writing in terms of time on task and percentage of nonfluent key transitions. However, reading behavior was affected only for the conditions that explicitly required revision. This suggests that nonfluent writing does not always affect the reading behavior, supporting the parallel and cascading processing hypothesis.

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Eye-tracking test design influences the relationship between gazing behaviour and evaluation decision

Die Bodenkultur Journal of Land Management Food and Environment ◽

10.1515/boku-2017-0021 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 68 (4) ◽

pp. 261-270

Author(s):

Thi Minh Hang Vu ◽

Viet Phu Tu ◽

Klaus Duerrschmid

Keyword(s):

Decision Making ◽

Eye Tracking ◽

Cognitive Processes ◽

Test Design ◽

Consumer Decision Making ◽

Eye Tracker ◽

Choice Tests ◽

Evaluation Decision ◽

Design Factors ◽

The Relationship

Summary Recent research has revealed a correlation between consumer gazing behaviour and decision-making in eye-tracking tests, which suggested a predictability decision-making from gazing behaviour. Since the eye-tracking test design has been reported to have an effect on gazing behaviour, the objective of this work is therefore to study systematically whether the test design influences the relationship between choice and gazing. Using a Tobii-T60 Eye Tracker, 100 persons participated in eye-tracking tests working on food images. Two design factors were tested: 1) Type of evaluation (maximum choice, minimum choice, ranking, and rating); 2) Question content (deliciousness, healthiness,prices, and familiarity). The results showed that the correlation between decision-making and gazing behaviour is influenced by both Type of evaluation and Question content. Only in the choice tests, a significant correlation between gazing behaviour and consumer decision-making was found. No correlation was found in the question content group Prices, but a very strong correlation existed in the three other question content groups. The results are discussed considering the relationship between visual attention and cognitive processes in decision-making.

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Using an Eye Tracker to Measure Information Processing According to Need for Cognition Level

Social Behavior and Personality An International Journal ◽

10.2224/sbp.7316 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 46 (11) ◽

pp. 1869-1880 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Di Wu ◽

Yuntao Gao ◽

Danmin Miao

Keyword(s):

Information Processing ◽

Eye Movements ◽

Eye Tracking ◽

Cognitive Processes ◽

Fixation Duration ◽

Reading Speed ◽

Need For Cognition ◽

Eye Tracker ◽

Persuasive Messages ◽

Tracking Technology

The need for cognition (NC) refers to the tendency for people to vary in the extent to which they engage in, and enjoy, cognitively effortful activities. However, few studies on NC have been conducted to investigate cognitive processes by using eye-tracking technology. Thus, we measured differences in eye movement between individuals high versus low in NC. We presented 43 undergraduates with persuasive messages on postponed retirement. Meanwhile, their eye movements were recorded using eye-tracking technology. Additionally, participants completed measures of attitude and recall of arguments. Our findings showed that participants high in NC recalled more arguments but did not form more favorable attitudes than did those low in NC. Furthermore, compared to those low in NC, those with high NC recorded longer eye fixation duration, more fixations, slower reading speed, and shorter saccade (movement) lengths. Finally, there were no differences between the two groups concerning the distribution (short, medium, and long fixations) and the proportion of regressions. Eye-tracking technology contributes to further understanding of characteristics of individuals high versus low in NC during reading.

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Five common pitfalls in eye-tracking research

Second language Research ◽

10.1177/0267658320921218 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 36 (3) ◽

pp. 277-305 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

Aline Godfroid ◽

Bronson Hui

Keyword(s):

Eye Tracking ◽

Cognitive Processing ◽

Open Science ◽

Eye Tracker ◽

Spatial Accuracy ◽

Science Practices ◽

Research Cycle ◽

Research Findings ◽

Testing Approach ◽

Hypothesis Testing Approach

Eye tracking has become an increasingly popular research methodology among language researchers to examine online cognitive processing of second-language (L2) speakers and bilinguals. As the scope of eye-tracking research expands, there is a need to ensure that the methodology is used properly, so as to safeguard the validity of research findings and the empirical basis upon which theories are built. We present five pitfalls in eye-tracking research that may threaten the internal or external validity of the study. We offer concrete recommendations to avoid each pitfall and demonstrate how these recommendations can be implemented so researchers may take full advantage of the opportunities of eye-tracking research. The five pitfalls occur at all stages of the research cycle. We emphasize (1) adopting a confirmatory (theory-driven, hypothesis-testing) approach to research, (2) selecting and handling eye-movement measures in a principled manner, (3) aligning the research design with the eye tracker properties (spatial accuracy, precision), (4) inspecting raw, sample-level eye-tracking data and their preprocessing by the eye-tracking software. We conclude by inviting eye-tracking researchers (5) to embrace open science practices to enhance the replication and reproducibility of their work.

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Investigating the construct measured by banked gap-fill items: Evidence from eye-tracking

Language Testing ◽

10.1177/0265532216677105 ◽

2016 ◽

Vol 35 (1) ◽

pp. 51-73 ◽

Cited By ~ 15

Author(s):

Gareth McCray ◽

Tineke Brunfaut

Keyword(s):

Eye Tracking ◽

Cognitive Processing ◽

Cognitive Processes ◽

Reading Proficiency ◽

Cognitive Effort ◽

Test Design ◽

Task Processing ◽

And Task

This study investigates test-takers’ processing while completing banked gap-fill tasks, designed to test reading proficiency, in order to test theoretically based expectations about the variation in cognitive processes of test-takers across levels of performance. Twenty-eight test-takers’ eye traces on 24 banked gap-fill items (on six tasks) were analysed according to seven online eye-tracking measures representing overall, text and task processing. Variation in processing was related to test-takers’ level of performance on the tasks overall. In particular, as hypothesized, lower-scoring students exerted more cognitive effort on local reading and lower-level cognitive processing in contrast to test-takers who attained higher scores. The findings of different cognitive processes associated with variation in scores illuminate the construct measured by banked gap-fill items, and therefore have implications for test design and the validity of score interpretations.

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Cognitive Processing of Film Cuts Among 4- to 8-Year-Old Children

European Psychologist ◽

10.1027/1016-9040/a000098 ◽

2012 ◽

Vol 17 (4) ◽

pp. 257-265 ◽

Cited By ~ 12

Author(s):

Carmen Munk ◽

Günter Daniel Rey ◽

Anna Katharina Diergarten ◽

Gerhild Nieding ◽

Wolfgang Schneider ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Eye Movements ◽

Cognitive Processing ◽

Media Literacy ◽

Age Groups ◽

Reaction Times ◽

Time Span ◽

Short Film ◽

Calculation Formula ◽

Eye Tracker ◽

Chronological Sequence

An eye tracker experiment investigated 4-, 6-, and 8-year old children’s cognitive processing of film cuts. Nine short film sequences with or without editing errors were presented to 79 children. Eye movements up to 400 ms after the targeted film cuts were measured and analyzed using a new calculation formula based on Manhattan Metrics. No age effects were found for jump cuts (i.e., small movement discontinuities in a film). However, disturbances resulting from reversed-angle shots (i.e., a switch of the left-right position of actors in successive shots) led to increased reaction times between 6- and 8-year old children, whereas children of all age groups had difficulties coping with narrative discontinuity (i.e., the canonical chronological sequence of film actions is disrupted). Furthermore, 4-year old children showed a greater number of overall eye movements than 6- and 8-year old children. This indicates that some viewing skills are developed between 4 and 6 years of age. The results of the study provide evidence of a crucial time span of knowledge acquisition for television-based media literacy between 4 and 8 years.

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The Opposition of Surprisal and Semantic Similarity in the Prediction of Language Processing: Evidence from Eye-tracking Data

10.31234/osf.io/zypk9 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Kun Sun

Keyword(s):

Eye Tracking ◽

Semantic Similarity ◽

Cognitive Processing ◽

Language Processing ◽

Language Comprehension ◽

Word Processing ◽

Reading Time ◽

Computational Models ◽

Tracking Data ◽

Dynamic Approach

Expectations or predictions about upcoming content play an important role during language comprehension and processing. One important aspect of recent studies of language comprehension and processing concerns the estimation of the upcoming words in a sentence or discourse. Many studies have used eye-tracking data to explore computational and cognitive models for contextual word predictions and word processing. Eye-tracking data has previously been widely explored with a view to investigating the factors that influence word prediction. However, these studies are problematic on several levels, including the stimuli, corpora, statistical tools they applied. Although various computational models have been proposed for simulating contextual word predictions, past studies usually preferred to use a single computational model. The disadvantage of this is that it often cannot give an adequate account of cognitive processing in language comprehension. To avoid these problems, this study draws upon a massive natural and coherent discourse as stimuli in collecting the data on reading time. This study trains two state-of-art computational models (surprisal and semantic (dis)similarity from word vectors by linear discriminative learning (LDL)), measuring knowledge of both the syntagmatic and paradigmatic structure of language. We develop a `dynamic approach' to compute semantic (dis)similarity. It is the first time that these two computational models have been merged. Models are evaluated using advanced statistical methods. Meanwhile, in order to test the efficiency of our approach, one recently developed cosine method of computing semantic (dis)similarity based on word vectors data adopted is used to compare with our `dynamic' approach. The two computational and fixed-effect statistical models can be used to cross-verify the findings, thus ensuring that the result is reliable. All results support that surprisal and semantic similarity are opposed in the prediction of the reading time of words although both can make good predictions. Additionally, our `dynamic' approach performs better than the popular cosine method. The findings of this study are therefore of significance with regard to acquiring a better understanding how humans process words in a real-world context and how they make predictions in language cognition and processing.

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Distribution of soil moisture content and its effect on the potential growth of the over-story species in North-East Chalkidiki

Silva Gandavensis ◽

10.21825/sg.v66i0.817 ◽

2001 ◽

Vol 66 ◽

Author(s):

M. Aslanidou ◽

P. Smiris

Keyword(s):

Soil Moisture ◽

Moisture Content ◽

Soil Moisture Content ◽

Soil Depth ◽

Moisture Distribution ◽

Taxus Baccata ◽

Mixed Stands ◽

Potential Growth ◽

North East ◽

Soil Moisture Distribution

This study deals with the soil moisture distribution and its effect on the potential growth and adaptation of the over-story species in north-east Chalkidiki. These species are: Quercus dalechampii Ten, Quercus conferta Kit, Quercus pubescens Willd, Castanea sativa Mill, Fagus moesiaca Maly-Domin and also Taxus baccata L. in mixed stands with Fagus moesiaca. Samples of soil, 1-2 kg per 20cm depth, were taken and the moisture content of each sample was measured in order to determine soil moisture distribution and its contribution to the growth of the forest species. The most important results are: i) available water is influenced by the soil depth. During the summer, at a soil depth of 10 cm a significant restriction was observed. ii) the large duration of the dry period in the deep soil layers has less adverse effect on stands growth than in the case of the soil surface layers, due to the fact that the root system mainly spreads out at a soil depth of 40 cm iii) in the beginning of the growing season, the soil moisture content is greater than 30 % at a soil depth of 60 cm, in beech and mixed beech-yew stands, is 10-15 % in the Q. pubescens stands and it's more than 30 % at a soil depth of 60 cm in Q. dalechampii stands.

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If Eyes are the Window to Our Soul, What Role does Eye-Tracking Play in Accounting Research?

Behavioral Research in Accounting ◽

10.2308/bria-52283 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 31 (2) ◽

pp. 107-133 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

Edward J. Lynch ◽

Lindsay M. Andiola

Keyword(s):

Eye Tracking ◽

Cognitive Processes ◽

Research Tool ◽

Future Research ◽

Behavioral Accounting ◽

Research Directions ◽

Psychological Constructs ◽

Instructional Resource ◽

Future Research Directions ◽

Research Domains

ABSTRACT Recent advances in technology have increased the accessibility and ease in using eye-tracking as a research tool. These advances have the potential to benefit behavioral accounting researchers' understanding of the cognitive processes underlying individuals' judgments, decisions, and behaviors. However, despite its potential and wide use in other disciplines, few behavioral accounting studies use eye-tracking. The purpose of this paper is to familiarize accounting researchers with eye-tracking, including its advantages and limitations as a research tool. We start by providing an overview of eye-tracking and discussing essential terms and useful metrics, as well as the psychological constructs they proxy. We then summarize eye-tracking research across research domains, review accounting studies that use eye-tracking, and identify future research directions across accounting topics. Finally, we provide an instructional resource to guide those researchers interested in using eye-tracking, including important considerations at each stage of the study. JEL Classifications: M41; C91.

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Do you see what I mean?: Using mobile eye tracking to capture parent–child dynamics in the context of anxiety risk

Development and Psychopathology ◽

10.1017/s0954579420001601 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 1-16

Author(s):

Leigha A. MacNeill ◽

Xiaoxue Fu ◽

Kristin A. Buss ◽

Koraly Pérez-Edgar

Keyword(s):

Eye Tracking ◽

Positive Reinforcement ◽

Parental Behavior ◽

Anxiety Level ◽

Eye Tracker ◽

Fine Grained ◽

Controlling Parenting ◽

Attractor Strength ◽

Child Age ◽

Mobile Eye Tracking

Abstract Temperamental behavioral inhibition (BI) is a robust endophenotype for anxiety characterized by increased sensitivity to novelty. Controlling parenting can reinforce children's wariness by rewarding signs of distress. Fine-grained, dynamic measures are needed to better understand both how children perceive their parent's behaviors and the mechanisms supporting evident relations between parenting and socioemotional functioning. The current study examined dyadic attractor patterns (average mean durations) with state space grids, using children's attention patterns (captured via mobile eye tracking) and parental behavior (positive reinforcement, teaching, directives, intrusion), as functions of child BI and parent anxiety. Forty 5- to 7-year-old children and their primary caregivers completed a set of challenging puzzles, during which the child wore a head-mounted eye tracker. Child BI was positively correlated with proportion of parent's time spent teaching. Child age was negatively related, and parent anxiety level was positively related, to parent-focused/controlling parenting attractor strength. There was a significant interaction between parent anxiety level and child age predicting parent-focused/controlling parenting attractor strength. This study is a first step to examining the co-occurrence of parenting behavior and child attention in the context of child BI and parental anxiety levels.

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