scholarly journals Imigran dan Warga Keturunan Jepang di Amerika Serikat: Sentimen-Sentimen Terhadapnya Dulu dan Kini

KIRYOKU ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 5 (1) ◽  
pp. 63-73
Author(s):  
Rifka Pratama
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Physical Violence ◽  
The United States ◽  
Chinese Exclusion ◽  
Japanese Immigrants ◽  
The Us ◽  
Asian Descent ◽  
The Difference ◽  
Legal Policies ◽  
Exclusion Act

Abstrak Sejarah mencatat sentimen rasial yang tertuang dalam produk undang-undang Amerika Serikat seperti Chinese Exclusion Act 1882, pada masanya turut menyasar para imigran dan warga keturunan Jepang. Beragam tindakan kekerasan verbal maupun fisik dan diskriminasi dialami imigran Asia, dalam konteks ini Cina dan Jepang, ketika itu. Lebih lanjut, merebaknya Covid-19 dalam kurun dua tahun ini kembali memunculkan masalah sosial serupa bagi komunitas imigran dan warga keturunan Asia, termasuk Jepang. Isu berhembus memojokan para pendatang dan warga keturunan Asia sebagai tertuduh pembawa virus Covid-19. Dengan demikian, aksi-aksi rasis, diskriminatif, dan xenophobic terrekam pada dua konteks waktu yang berbeda. Dengan mengumpulkan data-data melalui metode studi pustaka dan kemudian mengolahnya, diketahui terdapat perbedaan dan kesamaan fenomena di tengah sentimen-sentimen yang menarget imigran maupun warga keturunan Jepang di Amerika. Perbedaan yang dimaksud merujuk pada aspek pemicu. Pada masa-masa awal kedatangannya, sentimen terhadap imigran Jepang di Amerika Serikat dipicu oleh masalah kesempatan kerja dan kecurigaan bernuansa politik. Sementara itu, pada kurun waktu pandemi Covid-19 sentimen anti-Asian dipicu oleh isu penyebaran virus Covid-19. Di sisi lain, terdapat kesamaan dalam munculnya sentimen-setimen anti-Asian dulu dan kini yaitu tersebarnya informasi palsu dan provokatif, merebaknya prasangka dan diskriminasi rasial, adanya peran tokoh publik dalam menyebarkan kebencian, dan adanya kebijakan hukum yang diambil oleh otoritas untuk merespon isu terkait.  Kata Kunci: Amerika Serikat, Jepang, Imigran, Xenophobia, Covid-19 AbstractChinese Exclusion Act of 1882, which was one of the US Federal Laws restricting immigration, was meant to target Chinese immigrants at that time. Being among the Asian communities in the US, the Japanese immigrants were unsurprisingly affected. Racial discrimination and hatred began to arise as the implementation of the law was going on. Various acts of verbal and physical violence suffered by the Asian (Chinese and Japanese) immigrants at that time. Further, the outbreak of Covid-19 in the past two years has raised similar social problems for the immigrant communities and people of Asian descent including Japanese. The issue of cornering the immigrants and the residents of this descent as being accused of carrying the Covid-19 virus arises. Various acts of hatred begin to target the immigrants and citizens of Asian descent. Applying the library research method and processing the relevant data, there found differences and similarities amidst the sentiments targeting the immigrants and citizens of Japanese descent in America. The difference refers to the triggering aspect. In the early days of their arrival, the anti-Japanese immigrant sentiment in the United States was more motivated by the problems of job opportunity and political suspicions. Meanwhile, during the Covid-19 pandemic, anti-Asian sentiment was triggered by the issue of the spread of the Covid-19 virus. On the other hand, there are similarities to the emergence of anti-Asian sentiments today including the spread of false and provocative information, the spread of racial prejudice and discrimination, the role of public figures in spreading hatred, and the existence of legal policies taken by authorities to respond to the related issues.  Keywords: the United States, Japanese, Immigrants, Xenophobia, Covid-19

scholarly journals Chinese Immigration during the 1800s in the United States

2019 ◽  
Vol 3 (6) ◽  
Author(s):  
Qian Guo
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
World War Ii ◽  
Chinese Immigrants ◽  
The United States ◽  
The West ◽  
Academic Factors ◽  
Chinese Exclusion ◽  
Us Economy ◽  
The Us ◽  
Exclusion Act

The first wave of Chinese immigration was between 1849 to 1882, and 110,000 Chinese immigrants had settled on the west coast of the US, attracted by “Gold Mountain” in California and the large employment of railroad workers (Hsieh). When some anti-immigration acts passed, especially the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882 which banned Chinese immigration for ten years, only certain documented immigrants were allowed to come to America (Carlin). The Chinese Exclusion Act was not repealed until 1943 when the US need a smooth relationship with China in World War II (Ashabranner). Although the Immigration Act of 1965 continuously had a restrictive impact on Chinese immigrants, productive Chinese immigrants made great contributions to the US economy and politics in a large number of industries and business. One example is building the long railroad which allowed communications between the West and the East, and unified the country after the Civil War. They also brought their cultures to the add to diversity in the United States (Documentary :Silent Chinese laborers in the US). As time went on, more and more Chinese started their new lives in the land which across the Pacific Ocean from their hometowns because of political, economic, and academic factors (Hsieh).

scholarly journals Dietary Sodium Intake and Sodium Density in the United States: Estimates From NHANES 2005–2006 and 2015–2016

2020 ◽  
Vol 33 (9) ◽  
pp. 825-830
Author(s):  
Jiun-Ruey Hu ◽  
Shivani Sahni ◽  
Kenneth J Mukamal ◽  
Courtney L Millar ◽  
Yingfei Wu ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Odds Ratio ◽  
Sodium Intake ◽  
The United States ◽  
Dietary Sodium ◽  
Health And Nutrition ◽  
Hispanic Adults ◽  
The Us ◽  
The Difference ◽  
Total Sodium

Abstract BACKGROUND In the United States, current guidelines recommend a total sodium intake <2,300 mg/day, a guideline which does not consider kilocalorie intake. However, kilocalorie intake varies substantially by age and sex. We hypothesized that compared with sodium density, total sodium intake overestimates adherence to sodium recommendations, especially in adults consuming fewer kilocalories. METHODS In the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), we estimated the prevalence of adherence to sodium intake recommendations (<2,300 mg/day) and corresponding sodium density intake (<1.1 mg/kcal = 2,300 mg at 2,100 kcal) by sex, age, race/ethnicity, and kilocalorie level. Adherence estimates were compared between the 2005–2006 (n = 5,060) and 2015–2016 (n = 5,266) survey periods. RESULTS In 2005–2006, 23.1% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 21.5, 24.9) of the US population consumed <2,300 mg of sodium/day, but only 8.5% (CI: 7.6, 9.4) consumed <1.1 mg/kcal in sodium density. In 2015–2016, these figures were 20.9% (CI: 18.8, 23.2) and 5.1% (CI: 4.4, 6.0), respectively. In 2015–2016, compared with 2005–2006, adherence by sodium density decreased more substantially (odds ratio = 0.59; CI: 0.48, 0.72; P < 0.001) than adherence by total sodium consumption (odds ratio = 0.85; CI: 0.73, 0.98; P = 0.03). The difference in adherence between total sodium and sodium density goals was greater among those with lower kilocalorie intake, namely, older adults, women, and Hispanic adults. CONCLUSIONS Adherence estimated by sodium density is substantially less than adherence estimated by total sodium intake, especially among persons with lower kilocalorie intake. Further efforts to achieve population-wide reduction in sodium density intake are urgently needed.

scholarly journals Home hours in the United States and Europe

2016 ◽  
Vol 17 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Lei Fang ◽  
Cara McDaniel
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Time Use ◽  
Time Allocation ◽  
The United States ◽  
European Countries ◽  
The Past ◽  
The Us ◽  
The Difference ◽  
Using Data

AbstractUsing data from the Multinational Time Use Study, this paper documents the trend and level of time allocation, with a focus on home hours, for the US and European countries. Three patterns emerge. First, home hours per person have declined in both the US and European countries over the past 50 years. Second, female time allocation contributes more to the difference in time allocation per person between the US and European countries than does male time allocation. Third, the time allocation between the US and European countries is more similar for prime-age individuals than for young and old individuals.

scholarly journals Prevalence and Predictors of Depression among Training Physicians in China: A Comparison to the United States

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Lihong Chen ◽  
Zhuo Zhao ◽  
Zhen Wang ◽  
Ying Zhou ◽  
Xin Zhou ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Family Environment ◽  
East Asian ◽  
The United States ◽  
Training System ◽  
First Year ◽  
The Us ◽  
Asian Descent ◽  
Predictors Of Depression ◽  
Early Family

AbstractResident physician training is associated with a substantial increase in depression in the United States, with rates increasing from about 4% before internship to 35% at least once during the first year of residency1.Here, we sought to assess whether the rate of depression among residents in China are similar to their US counterparts and identify the common and differential predictors of depression in the two training systems. We assessed 1006 residents across three cohorts (2016-2019) at 16 affiliated hospitals of Shanghai Jiao Tong University and Peking Union Medical College. In parallel, we assessed three cohorts of 7028 residents at 100+ US institutions.At the Chinese institutions, similarly, the proportion of participants who met depression criteria increased from 9% prior to residency to 35% at least once during the first year of residency (P<0.0001), an increase similar in magnitude to residents during internship in US institutions. Among factors assessed before residency, prior history of depression and depressive symptom score at baseline were common factors associated with depression during residency in both China and the US. In contrast, neuroticism and early family environment were strongly associated with depression risk in the US but not in China. Young age was a predictor of depression in China but not in the US sample. Among residency training factors, long duty hours and reduced sleep duration emerged as predictors of depression in both China and the US.To gain insight into whether differences in personal predictors between the residents in China compared to the US residents were driven more by differences between cohorts, or by training system differences, we compared US residents of East Asian descent to other US and Chinese residents. We found that for most predictors (age, Neuroticism, early family environment), US residents of East Asian descent were more similar to other US residents than to the residents training in China.Overall, the magnitude of depression increase and work-related drivers of depression were similar between China and the US, suggesting a need for system reforms, and that the types of effective reforms may be similar across the two systems.

scholarly journals Chinese Immigration to California: Welcomed Workers, Shunned Immigrants

2020 ◽  
Vol 2 (5) ◽  
pp. 50-58
Author(s):  
Anthony W. Baker
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
The United States ◽  
Apparent Contradiction ◽  
Chinese Exclusion ◽  
Chinese Workers ◽  
Chinese Trade ◽  
White Workers ◽  
Changing Attitudes ◽  
Exclusion Act ◽  
Diplomatic Relationship

This paper explores the complex relationship linking the collapse of the mining and railroad industries, anti-Chinese sentiment, and the passage Chinese Exclusion Act.  Although difficult to tease out, the paper also explores how these immigration issues, prompted primarily by domestic concerns, were intertwined with the diplomatic relationship between the United States and China, as it evolved over the period of 1858 through 1880. this paper looks at historical newspapers written in the early Californian state in the 1850s to the 1860s to understand how changing attitudes towards Chinese immigrants affected local anti-Chinese laws and how these local attitudes shaped national laws. This paper will show that while Chinese workers were welcomed early on for providing cheap labor, overtime they would be increasingly prejudiced against and blamed for growing labor disputes between white workers and corporations. Ultimately Chinese immigration would be scapegoated as the reason for declining wages by white workers in order to pass anti-Chinese laws. The United States moved towards exclusion as a domestic policy, an apparent contradiction of its diplomatic policy of forging closer ties in an attempt to take advantage of Chinese trade.

Differentiated Human Rights of Migrant Spouses Based on Nationalities in Taiwan

2018 ◽  
Vol 19 (2) ◽  
pp. 81-112
Author(s):  
Te-Yuan Chien
Keyword(s):  
The United States ◽  
The Political ◽  
Constitutional Court ◽  
International Treaties ◽  
Political Issues ◽  
Chinese Exclusion ◽  
The Supreme Court ◽  
The Difference ◽  
Exclusion Act ◽  
To Receive

In Taiwan, there were 530,512 migrant spouses in 2017 and, among them, 337,838 (about 63.7 per cent) came from China. However, Chinese spouses have to spend two years more than other foreign spouses to receive residency. Due to the political complexities between China and Taiwan, this differentiated treatment is a controversial issue. Nevertheless, some advocates have urged legislators to propose amendments, whereas others support raising the issue in the Constitutional Court.This article contends that the period it takes for Chinese and other foreign spouses to receive residency should be equal. Furthermore, the article suggests that it is more suitable for the legislative branch to use its plenary power in dealing with the political issues than the judicial branch, similar to how the United States (us) resolved disputes after the enactment of the Chinese-Exclusion Act 130 years ago.This article begins with the political and legal background to the differentiated treatment issue in Taiwan. The second part begins with the bills in Congress to eliminate the difference and outlines the interpretation of the Constitutional Court in Taiwan regarding the Chinese issues. The third part discusses the similar discriminatory treatment of the Chinese in the us after the Chinese-Exclusive Act in 1882 and how the Supreme Court dealt with those disputes. Finally, considering international treaties and the sensitivity of the political issues, this article suggests, similar to the us approach, introduction of the doctrine of plenary congressional power and the political question doctrine to resolve the disputes.

scholarly journals Enforcing annulled arbitral awards

2018 ◽  
Vol 39 (1) ◽  
pp. 215-240
Author(s):  
Vesna Lazić-Smoljanić
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
New York ◽  
The Netherlands ◽  
The United States ◽  
The Us ◽  
Recognition And Enforcement ◽  
The Difference ◽  
New York Convention ◽  
Dutch Supreme ◽  
Judgment Setting

This contribution examines the procedural aspects of the enforcement of arbitral awards that were set aside in the jurisdiction where they were rendered. It focuses on recent cases in the United States and the Netherlands, which adopted a different line of reasoning than the approach taken by French judiciary many years ago. According to the latter, an arbitral award set aside in the ‘country of origin’ may be enforced in France in reliance on national law. Namely, French law on enforcement is more favourable than the 1958 New York Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral. The courts in the United States and in the Netherlands in recent cases have taken a different approach. They examine the judgment setting aside the award and ignore the effects of the annulment in certain circumstances. Even though there are some common denominators, there are substantial differences between the line of reasoning of the courts in the US and the Netherlands. They remain distinct although a more recent decision of the Dutch Supreme Court emphasises an exceptional nature of such enforcement so that the difference between the two approaches may seem somewhat mitigated. However, a closer look reveals that substantial discrepancies between the courts in these two jurisdictions have remained. The article provides for a critical view on the enforcement of annulled arbitral awards in general. In particular, it points to drawbacks of variety of unilateral approaches amongst various jurisdictions. Additionally, it suggests the development of internationally accepted standards for the sake of legal certainty and predictability of arbitration, should the acceptance of the enforcement of annulled arbitral appear a majority view amongst academics and arbitration practitioners.&nbsp;

scholarly journals The Impact of the Chinese Diaspora in the U.S. on the American View of China

2018 ◽  
Vol 22 (1) ◽  
pp. 153-168
Author(s):  
Jan Misiuna
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Chinese Americans ◽  
The United States ◽  
Second World War ◽  
Chinese Exclusion ◽  
Yellow Peril ◽  
The Impact ◽  
Exclusion Act ◽  
Contemporary Chinese ◽  
Second World

The first Chinese immigrants arrived in the United States in the 1820s and initially their presence did not result in improving the American perception of China. On the contrary – intense immigration from China led to the development of racist and xenophobic attitudes towards the Chinese (Yellow Peril), which culminated in the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. During the Second World War, China became an important ally of the United States, which triggered a succession of changes to laws barring Chinese immigration (Magnuson Act). Contemporary Chinese Americans – particularly Taiwanese Americans – can be located in the upper spheres of immigrant population: they are considered to be a well-educated and affluent group. This paper presents the historical and contemporary socio-economic characteristics of the Sino-American population set against a historical and legal background.

Before Restriction Became Exclusion

2014 ◽  
Vol 83 (1) ◽  
pp. 24-56 ◽  
Author(s):  
Beth Lew-Williams
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Turning Point ◽  
The United States ◽  
Immigration Restriction ◽  
Immigration Control ◽  
Chinese Exclusion ◽  
History Of ◽  
Chinese Workers ◽  
Exclusion Act ◽  
Important Shift

The Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) marked a turning point in the history of U.S. immigration control, but it was not as definitive a move toward gatekeeping as historians have suggested. Contemporaries called the 1882 law the “Chinese Restriction Act,” reserving the term “exclusion” for its successor in 1888. The rhetorical change paralleled an important shift in policy. During Chinese Restriction (1882–1888), the United States so valued its relationship with China that it made immigration restriction subject to diplomatic negotiation. Only after the Restriction Act failed and China signaled capitulation did the United States enact Chinese Exclusion (1888), which prohibited Chinese workers, asserted America’s sovereign power to exclude, and developed modern systems of enforcement. The transition from diplomatic Restriction to unilateral Exclusion represents a powerful aggrandizement of American power.

Chinese Women Entering New England: Chinese Exclusion Act Case Files, Boston, 1911–1925

2008 ◽  
Vol 81 (3) ◽  
pp. 383-409
Author(s):  
Shauna Lo
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
New England ◽  
Chinese Women ◽  
The United States ◽  
Innovative Strategies ◽  
Chinese Exclusion ◽  
Transnational Migrants ◽  
Case Files ◽  
Exclusion Act

Chinese women who sought entry to the United States during the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882–1943) faced unique challenges. As case files (1911–25) from the Boston Immigration Office reveal, however, they became adept transnational migrants, overcoming great obstacles and adopting innovative strategies to reach their destinations in the Northeast.

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