scholarly journals The Patent System during the French Industrial Revolution: Institutional Change and Economic Effects

2019 ◽  
Vol 60 (1) ◽  
pp. 31-56 ◽  
Author(s):  
Gabriel Galvez-Behar
Keyword(s):  
Economic Performance ◽  
Industrial Revolution ◽  
The United States ◽  
Legal Framework ◽  
Economic Effects ◽  
Patent System ◽  
French Patent ◽  
Natural Right ◽  
The United Kingdom ◽  
The Cost

Abstract The influence of the patent system on the economic performance of Western countries during the Industrial Revolution is an important but difficult question to address. With the United Kingdom and the United States, France was one of the first countries to adopt a modern patent legislation in 1791. The aim of this paper is to understand the paradox of such a system, which was based on a democratic and natural-right conception of invention but turned out to be restrictive. It analyses the legal framework and its evolution from 1791 to the late 1850s and reveals its contradictory aspects: a natural right inspiration vs a restrictive access due to the cost of the patent. It shows how the 1844 Patent Act reform did not end the criticism of the French patent system. Then, in a second part, it considers the diffusion of patents in time, in different regions and industries and stresses the heterogeneity of the patent system.

scholarly journals Risk and Prevention of Meningococcal Disease among Education Workers: A Review

2004 ◽  
Vol 15 (2) ◽  
pp. 89-93 ◽  
Author(s):  
Philippe De Wals ◽  
Pierre Deshaies ◽  
Gaston De Serres ◽  
Bernard Duval ◽  
Lise Goulet ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
United Kingdom ◽  
Pregnant Women ◽  
Meningococcal Disease ◽  
Disease Risk ◽  
The United States ◽  
Population Based ◽  
Work Place ◽  
Societal Benefit ◽  
The United Kingdom ◽  
The Cost

The aims of the present study were to review the risk of invasive meningococcal disease (IMD) among education workers, particularly pregnant women, and to evaluate preventive measures, in a context of endemicity, outbreak or epidemic as observed in the province of Quebec. The literature was reviewed and persons in charge of IMD surveillance in France, Quebec, the United Kingdom and the United States were interviewed. Surveys of asymptomatic carriage ofNeisseria meningitidisshow that transmission among students is higher than transmission between students and teachers. IMD incidence among education workers was analyzed in Cheshire (United Kingdom) in the period from 1997 to 1999, and the results indicated a risk six times higher than that in the general population. Overestimation of the magnitude of the risk is possible because the analysis focused on a cluster. None of the population-based studies of IMD mentioned a risk of secondary cases among education workers. Six IMD cases in education workers were identified in five clusters in schools in the United Kingdom, but not in the other countries. There is no epidemiological study on IMD risk among pregnant women, and this factor was not mentioned in any published review of IMD. Immunization of education workers at the beginning of their employment, using serogroup C glycoconjugate vaccine or a combined A, C, W-135, and Y conjugate vaccine (still under development), could reduce IMD risk, but the cost effectiveness of this measure should be evaluated. The societal benefit of excluding pregnant women from the work place during an outbreak seems to be very low, even if disease risk could be decreased for this specific group. When chemoprophylaxis is indicated for the control of an outbreak in an educational setting, treatment should be offered both to students and teachers in the group at risk.

scholarly journals Re-calculating the cost of coccidiosis in chickens

2020 ◽  
Vol 51 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Damer P. Blake ◽  
Jolene Knox ◽  
Ben Dehaeck ◽  
Ben Huntington ◽  
Thilak Rathinam ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Egg Production ◽  
The United States ◽  
The United Kingdom ◽  
Chicken Population ◽  
Global Cost ◽  
Using Data ◽  
The Uk ◽  
The Cost ◽  
The Impact ◽  
Significant Disease

Abstract Coccidiosis, caused by Eimeria species parasites, has long been recognised as an economically significant disease of chickens. As the global chicken population continues to grow, and its contribution to food security intensifies, it is increasingly important to assess the impact of diseases that compromise chicken productivity and welfare. In 1999, Williams published one of the most comprehensive estimates for the cost of coccidiosis in chickens, featuring a compartmentalised model for the costs of prophylaxis, treatment and losses, indicating a total cost in excess of £38 million in the United Kingdom (UK) in 1995. In the 25 years since this analysis the global chicken population has doubled and systems of chicken meat and egg production have advanced through improved nutrition, husbandry and selective breeding of chickens, and wider use of anticoccidial vaccines. Using data from industry representatives including veterinarians, farmers, production and health experts, we have updated the Williams model and estimate that coccidiosis in chickens cost the UK £99.2 million in 2016 (range £73.0–£125.5 million). Applying the model to data from Brazil, Egypt, Guatemala, India, New Zealand, Nigeria and the United States resulted in estimates that, when extrapolated by geographical region, indicate a global cost of ~ £10.4 billion at 2016 prices (£7.7–£13.0 billion), equivalent to £0.16/chicken produced. Understanding the economic costs of livestock diseases can be advantageous, providing baselines to evaluate the impact of different husbandry systems and interventions. The updated cost of coccidiosis in chickens will inform debates on the value of chemoprophylaxis and development of novel anticoccidial vaccines.

Chapter II. The World Economy

1991 ◽  
Vol 137 ◽  
pp. 24-44
Author(s):  
Andrew Gurney ◽  
Ray Barrell
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
United Kingdom ◽  
Economic Performance ◽  
Growth Rates ◽  
World Economy ◽  
The United States ◽  
The United Kingdom ◽  
The World

In the course of the last 2 years economic performance in the major 7 economies has become less synchronised. In 1988 GNP grew by more than 3.5 per cent in all seven economies, with growth rates either at or close to cyclical highs. However for 1991 we expect negative GNP growth for Canada and the United Kingdom, negligible growth in the United States, growth of around 1.5 per cent in France and Italy, and of over 3 per cent in Germany and Japan. Table 1 shows that GNP growth in the major 7 economies is expected to slow to 1.2 per cent in 1991. Chart 1 highlights the different responses among the major 4 economies.

Expanded Function Orthodontic Auxiliaries; a Proposal for their Introduction in the UK

1988 ◽  
Vol 15 (4) ◽  
pp. 281-286 ◽  
Author(s):  
K. D. O'Brien ◽  
W. C. Shaw
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
United Kingdom ◽  
Cost Effectiveness ◽  
Orthodontic Treatment ◽  
The United States ◽  
The United Kingdom ◽  
Treatment Provision ◽  
The Uk ◽  
The Cost

The role of dental and orthodontic auxiliaries in Europe and the United States is reviewed, and the advantages of their employment in the United Kingdom are discussed in terms of increasing the cost-effectiveness of orthodontic treatment provision. A three-stage programme for the evaluation of Orthodontic Auxiliaries in the UK is proposed.

scholarly journals Legal aspects of Organizing AML/CFT System in Foreign Companies

2018 ◽  
Vol 3 (2) ◽  
pp. 273
Author(s):  
Botasheva L.H. ◽  
Levakova D.A. ◽  
Chupilina T.S.
Keyword(s):  
The United States ◽  
Legal Framework ◽  
Legal Aspects ◽  
Regulatory Framework ◽  
Control Measures ◽  
Quality Of Data ◽  
Foreign Companies ◽  
The United Kingdom ◽  
Characteristic Features

The article explores Russian and international experience of AML / CFT regulation in companies. It analyzes the regulatory framework of the United Kingdom, France, the United States, Japan, Italy and other countries, identifies the characteristic features of counteracting the legalization of proceeds from crime. The study of analytical reports of the leading global consulting companies for 2014-2016 shows changes in the applied AML/CFT enforcement measures in the organizations: it emphasizes the quality of data of control measures for transactions, focuses on the formation of a systematic approach to AML/CFT, specifies the KYC requirements. The comparison of established international and national requirements allows to assess the level of AML / CFT provision in Russia and propose innovations in the regulatory framework for AML / CFT regulation of Russian companies to improve its effectiveness: changing penalties, increasing the effectiveness of law-enforcement authorities cooperation, implementing the principle "know your customer", ensuring the regular training of all staff, and other methods. Keywords: AML/CFT, legal framework, FATF. 

scholarly journals Closer to home: How national implementation affects State conduct in partnered operations

2021 ◽  
pp. 1-23
Author(s):  
Alessandro Mario Amoroso
Keyword(s):  
International Law ◽  
Case Law ◽  
The United States ◽  
Legal Framework ◽  
International Committee ◽  
International Level ◽  
The United Kingdom ◽  
National Implementation ◽  
Support Relationships ◽  
Domestic Law

Abstract Domestic law, case law and policies play a decisive yet underestimated role in ensuring that partnered operations are carried out in compliance with international law. Research on the legal framework of partnered operations has so far focused on clarifying existing and emerging obligations at the international level. Less attention has been devoted to understanding whether and how domestic legal systems integrate international law into national decision-making which governs the planning, execution and assessment of partnered operations. This article tries to fill the gap by focusing on the practice of selected States (the United States, the United Kingdom, Denmark, Germany and Italy), chosen for their recent or current involvement in partnered operations. By using the International Committee of the Red Cross's “support relationships” framework and based on a comparative analysis of practice, the study seeks to evaluate the effectiveness of national laws, case law and policies according to their ability to prevent or mitigate the risk of humanitarian consequences posed by partnered warfare.

Decommissioning – What's the fuss about?

2018 ◽  
Vol 58 (2) ◽  
pp. 748 ◽  
Author(s):  
Pat Saraceni ◽  
Keely Liddle
Keyword(s):  
End Of Life ◽  
Asset Management ◽  
Oil And Gas ◽  
The United States ◽  
Legal Framework ◽  
Economic Viability ◽  
The United Kingdom ◽  
Innovative Leadership ◽  
Oil And Gas Sector ◽  
The Ideal

Offshore decommissioning is complex, challenging (both legally and operationally) and costly. With the rise in the number of fields approaching end of life (or economic viability), the interest in decommissioning in and around Australian waters is set to increase in the near to medium future. The lack of established federal laws regulating all aspects of decommissioning opens the door for Australia to show innovative leadership in how best to tackle end of life asset management in the oil and gas sector. Australia’s learning in this area will be aided by the laws of jurisdictions that are better-versed and more experienced in offshore decommissioning, such as the United Kingdom, the United States and Norway. This paper will explore Australia’s current legal framework and the issues faced by Australia in this area. While clear policies and regulations are essential, this does not equate to a single rigid approach. A flexible (but consistent) approach is the ideal. By considering how international regulatory regimes for decommissioning may be adapted to Australia, the paper will propose actions regulators and participants in the industry can take now to prepare for and ride (rather than drown in) the decommissioning wave.

Funding Inventors

2019 ◽  
pp. 139-152
Author(s):  
Arthur M. Diamond
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Working Class ◽  
Industrial Revolution ◽  
The United States ◽  
Patent System ◽  
Web Content ◽  
Steam Power ◽  
Patent Pools ◽  
Institutional Innovations ◽  
Patent Reforms

Since breakthrough inventions are costly, hard, and precarious, patents can be fair rewards for invention and can provide funding to enable future inventions. The funding widens the opportunity to invent, as illustrated by the tinkering working-class inventors who developed and applied steam power in Britain in the Industrial Revolution, and who later invented many of the agricultural and manufacturing tools and processes in the United States in the 1800s. Working-class inventors could hire patent agents, for modest fees, to help with the legal paperwork. Later, important breakthrough inventors such as Thomas Edison and Dean Kamen depended on patents of earlier inventions to fund their later inventions. Patent reforms can counter flaws (such as costly frivolous litigation) in the current patent system. Invention can also be encouraged by private institutional innovations, following the examples of micropayments for web content, and patent pools by firms such as Intellectual Ventures.

The United States and the Coalition Provisional Authority – occupation by proxy?

2019 ◽  
Vol 32 (3) ◽  
pp. 415-436
Author(s):  
Amy Elizabeth Chinnappa
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Legal Status ◽  
The United States ◽  
Legal Framework ◽  
The United Kingdom ◽  
Private Military Companies ◽  
The Us ◽  
Coalition Provisional Authority ◽  
Unified Command ◽  
Domestic Law

AbstractThe Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) governed Iraq from 2003 following Resolution 1483 of the UN Security Council. This Resolution affirmed that Iraq was in a state of occupation and that there were occupying powers. The Resolution referred to the United States of America and the United Kingdom as ‘occupying powers under the unified command of the “Authority”’, the ‘Authority’ being the CPA. However, the legal status of the CPA and its relationship to the US (the focus of this article) is not entirely clear, both under US domestic law and international law. This lack of clarity could have significant implications for the US’s responsibility for the CPA’s conduct. As with private military companies, a CPA-style administration of territory could become a tool for states to quarantine their risk under the law of occupation. This article contends that the theory of occupation by proxy may help clarify the legal status of the CPA and its relationship to the US and could assist in closing the identified gap in responsibility. To support this argument, this article establishes a legal framework for the theory of occupation by proxy which is then applied to the CPA and US.

scholarly journals Examining inventions, shaping property: The savants and the French patent system

2018 ◽  
Vol 57 (1) ◽  
pp. 62-80 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jérôme Baudry
Keyword(s):  
Intellectual Property ◽  
Patent System ◽  
The Political ◽  
Close Attention ◽  
French Patent ◽  
Natural Right ◽  
The Law ◽  
Consultative Body ◽  
Examination Process ◽  
Shaping Property

In 1791, the Loi relative aux découvertes utiles instituted a new patent system in France. Because patents were seen as the expression of the natural right of inventors, prior examination was abolished. However, only a few years after the law was passed, an unofficial examination was reinstated, and it was entrusted to the Comité Consultatif des Arts et Manufactures – a consultative body composed of prominent scientists. I analyze the political significance of the involvement of the savants in the patent system, and based on the archives of the Comité, I study the scope and practicalities of the examination process, paying close attention to the ways through which the savants of the Comité directly intervened in the writing and drawing of specifications. I show how a distinct regime of intellectual property emerged in France and how it was constructed by the interests and norms of scientists, eager as they were to distinguish ‘science’ from ‘industry’ and establish the superiority of the former over the latter.

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