scholarly journals China’s Arctic Policy: Challenges to Regional Security (1990s – 2020s)

2021 ◽  
pp. 377-388
Author(s):  
Oleksandr Horobets ◽  
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Large Scale ◽  
Arctic Region ◽  
The United States ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Regional Security ◽  
The World ◽  
Arctic Policy ◽  
The Arctic Region

The article analyzes the evolution of China's Arctic policy, which has expanded over three decades from individual polar research to observer status in the Arctic Council and the existence of a state Arctic strategy. China and Russia have established mutually beneficial cooperation in the Arctic region in such conditions, when in many areas there are fundamental contradictions between the countries. The West did not have a long-term strategy capable of responding to current security challenges, including in the Arctic. When Russia tried to regain lost positions on the world stage in 2007-2008, China became an increasingly influential player in the world. If before the Arctic had been outside the lines of rivalry for decades, the question of the Far North as an arena of military competition began to take first place. China has become a long-term threat to both the United States and Russia. In previous years, with the help of the China, Moscow had the opportunity to receive the necessary investments and technologies for large-scale Arctic projects. The more Beijing attempts to establish itself as an influential player in the Arctic, the more the threat to other Arctic countries will grow. The Russian Federation has positioned itself as a leader in the region. The country's policy was aimed at strengthening this status through regional control and expansion of the military presence. This led to a response from the United States and NATO countries. In Russia it was assessed as a threat. The question arises as to what the strategy of the United States should be, and whether it will be possible to resist the costly arms race. If not, then the competition will be concentrated in the political and economic spheres. A particular aspect is the rapid militarization of the Arctic region after 2014, primarily due to changes in Russia's military strategy, which extends to the North. This has led to the tensions between the United States and Russia. China has not yet resorted to expand its military power in the Arctic. China's policy of economic and infrastructural influence is opposed to military methods. The effectiveness of Chinese non-military methods of influence is assessed

scholarly journals U.S. Arctic policy: the agenda of 2019

2020 ◽  
pp. 25-37
Author(s):  
Andrei Andreevich Kovalev
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Arctic Region ◽  
The United States ◽  
Climatic Changes ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Arctic Policy ◽  
Defense Cooperation ◽  
Relevant Consideration ◽  
The Arctic Region

This article explores the key stages of the development of U.S. policy with regards to Arctic Region. The goal is set to outline the fundamental interests of the United States in the Arctic, as well as analyze the actions aimed at their achievement. The article examines the main priorities in U.S. Arctic policy, namely the protection and preservation of resources and ecosystem in the Arctic Region, scientific study of climatic changes, peculiarities of economic development of Alaska, and national security interests of the state. The questions of interaction of Arctic states with regards to defense cooperation become increasingly relevant. Consideration of the mid-term and long-term prospects of U.S. Arctic policy allowed the author focusing attention on the news aspects of U.S. government actions. Maritime capabilities of the United States in the Arctic waters are views in the context of modern tendencies. The author attempted to trace the prospects for expansion of U.S. influence in the Arctic Region based on the current agenda of 2019.

Evolution of the US Arctic Policy

2021 ◽  
Vol 8 (1) ◽  
pp. 54-64
Author(s):  
A. V. Borisov ◽  
I. V. Rovinskaya
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Regional Cooperation ◽  
Environmental Issues ◽  
Arctic Region ◽  
The United States ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
The Us ◽  
The Status ◽  
Arctic Policy ◽  
The Arctic Region

The article examines the development of the US Arctic policy which is reflected in the US strategic documents. The author examines the evolution of doctrinal purposes from those focusing on environmental issues and regional cooperation to those focusing on logistics, security and military infrastructure. The evolution of the US strategic documents is considered in the context of the activities of such actors as Russia, Canada, China and a number of international organizations in the Arctic region. Contradictions and existing and prospective areas of cooperation are noted. The author shows the immutability of the US key strategic guidelines of the United States aimed at securing the status of an Arctic power for the United States and ensuring the promotion and protection of the US interests in the region.

scholarly journals Some issues of cooperation between Russia and China in the Arctic

2021 ◽  
Vol 21 (3) ◽  
pp. 335-339
Author(s):  
Elena S. Novikova ◽  
◽  
Anna V. Kripak ◽  
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Arctic Region ◽  
The United States ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Economic Relations ◽  
The Relationship ◽  
The Arctic Region

The article is devoted to the consideration of the reasons and a number of areas of cooperation between Russia and China in the Arctic region. The importance of this region for Russia and China is analyzed. The advantages of the Arctic for the two countries in terms of territory, economy, and politics are revealed. The conclusion is made about the relationship between the COVID-19 pandemic and the exacerbation of the crisis of political and economic relations between China, Russia, and the United States.

scholarly journals Norwway’s Arctic security policy: agenda of 2019

2020 ◽  
pp. 23-35
Author(s):  
Andrei Andreevich Kovalev
Keyword(s):  
Security Policy ◽  
Arctic Region ◽  
The United States ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Positive Role ◽  
Military Presence ◽  
Arctic Security ◽  
Arctic Policy ◽  
Further Development ◽  
The Arctic Region

The goal of this article consists in comprehensive analysis of the domestic and foreign security policy of Norway in the regions of Norwegian Arctic and Northern Norway. This work explores the geographical peculiarities and economy of the regions; questions of international cooperation, impacting the domestic policy as a whole and Arctic policy in particular; Norway’s military interests and military presence of NATO and the United States in the region of Norwegian Arctic. Attention is given to the relations between Norway and Russia, since they influence the overall balance between countries in the Arctic region. The conducted analysis demonstrates that Arctic region is strategically important for Norway from the perspectives of both, domestic and foreign policy. Norway plans to pay attention to respect nation’s sovereignty, which is necessary for successful development of the region, its economy, security, and conducting scientific research in the Arctic. Norway’s Arctic policy is closely tied to relations with Russia and NATO member-states, and its further development on this vector can play a positive role for the entire global community. Carrying out dual policy with regards to Russia, Norway welcomes the strengthening of military presence of the NATO countries in the region.                                                          

scholarly journals Russia, NATO and the Arctic: Rivalry, Security, Possible Scenarios of Geopolitical Competition

2021 ◽  
Vol 21 (4) ◽  
pp. 758-771
Author(s):  
Igor A. Arzhanov
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Arctic Region ◽  
The United States ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
The Usa ◽  
Northern Territories ◽  
The One ◽  
Key Aspects ◽  
Military Activity ◽  
The Arctic Region

The article is devoted to the analysis of key aspects of the geopolitical struggle for the Arctic region. The relevance of the research stems from the fact that due to climate change and the reduction of ice cover in the Northern Hemisphere, the Arctic is of increasing interest to world powers, which are competing for control over new deposits of natural resources and strategic dominance in the region. It is emphasized that the Arctic has become a region where leading states are trying to implement various geopolitical strategies. On the one hand, the four members of the Arctic Five under the auspices of NATO are trying to implement a scenario in which the polar zone is divided into stable zones of influence. On the other hand, there are the interests and position of Russia, which is concerned about the increased military activity of the United States and NATO in the region. The purpose of the article is to study the problems of the Arctic militarization, which will make it possible to identify challenges and threats in this region for Russias national strategy. The research methodology is based on theoretical analysis and dialectical method. In addition, the study used formal logical methods and various approaches to information processing (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction). The forecasting method helped to determine the range of possible military and political trends in the region. The article identifies the potential interests of Russia, the United States and NATO in the context of increased attention to the Arctic region in recent years. The study reflects a comparative analysis of the policies and interests of the member states of the Arctic Five and NATO, namely Denmark, Canada, Norway and the USA, their practical steps in the High North. The author describes possible prospects for interaction and dialogue on countering the main threats to international security within the framework of a comprehensive strategy. Considering the role and rivalry between Russia and NATO in the Arctic, the article highlights the authors forecasts of further military and political presence of NATO in the Arctic and the necessary actions for Russia to defend its northern territories.

scholarly journals Chinese geopolitical goals in the Arctic

2019 ◽  
Vol 6 (1) ◽  
pp. 16-23
Author(s):  
I. S. Doroshenko
Keyword(s):  
Arctic Region ◽  
The United States ◽  
Silk Road ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
The European Union ◽  
Arctic Council ◽  
Northern Sea Route ◽  
The World ◽  
The Silk Road ◽  
The Arctic Region

The People’s Republic of China is increasing its influence around the world every day. It’s hard not to notice the aggressive economic expansion being carried out by China in the Asian region. Chinese presence is felt in Africa, South America and even in Europe. By engaging in a trade war with the United States, China thereby challenged the most influential economy in the world, which is confirmed by its ambitions as a world leader. To meet these ambitions, a powerful transport and logistics support is necessary, which gave rise to the “Belts and Ways” initiative. The initiative “One Belt - One Road” combines two projects: “The Economic Belt of the Silk Road” and “The Sea Silk Road of the XXI Century”. This means that, in addition to the traditional land routes of the Silk Road, Beijing is exploring the sea routes along the African continent and in the Pacific Ocean. Since the initiative does not have a clear strategy, the northern routes that have recently become relevant are also considered by the Chinese authorities.The search for an alternative to the Suez Canal has repeatedly prompted researchers to use the Northern Sea Route as a trading artery linking Europe and Asia, but climatic conditions and technical capabilities did not allow this idea to be realized. The current situation in the Arctic region allows us to talk about new development prospects.China is actively interested in the Arctic: since 2013, it has an observer status in the Arctic Council, has been increasing its presence in the region by organizing scientific expeditions, building icebreakers, introducing its own brand “Northern Silk Road”, and also investing in projects like “Yamal LNG». China outlined its presence in the Arctic region in a white paper published in January 2018. One of the main goals that Beijing sets for itself is multilateral cooperation in the development of the Northern Sea Route.The author of the article analyzes the origins of such interest, as well as possible threats to Russia. The study also examines the position of European partners in the participation of the development of the SMP, bilateral relations with the Chinese side and the ratio of the strategy of the European Union, China and Russia in the High North. The author gives a geopolitical rationale for Chinese initiatives that are aimed at creating the conditions for intensive navigation in the northern areas.

The United States and China in the Arctic

Polar Record ◽  
2014 ◽  
Vol 51 (4) ◽  
pp. 392-403 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ingrid Lundestad ◽  
Øystein Tunsjø
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Arctic Region ◽  
The United States ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Resource Extraction ◽  
The World ◽  
Chinese Policy ◽  
Common Interests ◽  
Conflicting Interests ◽  
Circumpolar Arctic

ABSTRACTUS-China relations represent the most central bilateral relationship in the world, but few studies investigate the two countries’ approaches to the Arctic. This article explores the geopolitical shifts in the Arctic, and compares and contrasts American and Chinese policy in the region. The article examines to what extent the two have common or conflicting interests, and discusses the potential for US-China friction and rivalry. Some alarmist writers suggest that the future Arctic is set for confrontation. This article, however, argues that the current stakes in the circumpolar Arctic region are not sufficiently high to warrant confrontation between the two states. Cooperation predominantly guides their policies and activities. While they play different roles and increasingly seek to demonstrate their influence, there are common interests, such as in the freedom of the seas, in resource extraction and in developing infrastructure in the region.

scholarly journals An Analysis from the English School Perspective on conflict issues in the Arctic Region of the Russian Federation and the United States

2021 ◽  
Vol 18 (1) ◽  
pp. 76-93
Author(s):  
Ebru Caymaz ◽  
Y. Barbaros Büyüksağnak
Keyword(s):  
Large Scale ◽  
Large Body ◽  
Arctic Region ◽  
The United States ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
English School ◽  
Expertise Sharing ◽  
The Rich ◽  
Development Levels ◽  
The Arctic Region

When the current literature on RF and the USA's Arctic doctrines, strategies and disputes are examined, it is seen that there are two basic approaches that provide analyzes from realist and liberal perspectives. A large body of these analyzes focus on singular and linear dimensions, primarily on energy security and military issues. The number of studies which examine the dimensions of the conflict from a realistic perspective and synthesize with the cooperation and governance offered by the liberal perspective is relatively low. There is a need for a more in-depth understanding of the region, so extensive studies involving multidisciplinary dimensions that can promote collaboration and expertise sharing as well as resolution of disputes among security actors. In this study, the subject dispute matters were examined from the perspective of English School, which can present a unique framework by synthesizing the traditions of realism, rationalism and revolutionism. In conclusion part, possible solution suggestions in accordance with the international law for the resolution of disputes are discussed within a broader framework offered by the English School perspective. In addition, the role and functions of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in the struggle for dominance of the region as the third actor, which led to various discussions with large–scale investments and cooperation agreements across the region, were also included. In today's world where power-based approaches are replaced by binding international rules, it is concluded that in order to develop the cooperation in the Arctic Region, the international community, especially in terms of the the littoral states; developing policies that support joint scientific studies and prioritize measures to increase the socio-economic conditions and human development levels of indigenous peoples and communities living in the region are more significant than being a commercial and economic gain center provided by the rich energy resources and new maritime trade routes which emerged due to global warming. Özet RF ve ABD’nin Arktik politika, doktrin, strateji ve uyuşmazlık konularını ele alan güncel literatür incelendiğinde realist ve liberal bakış açılarından analizler sunan iki temel yaklaşımın olduğu görülmektedir. Söz konusu analizlerin büyük bir kısmı başta enerji güvenliği ve askeri konular olmak üzere, tekil ve doğrusal boyutlar üzerine odaklanmaktadır. Uyuşmazlık boyutlarını realist bir bakış açısıyla irdeleyerek, liberal perspektifin sunduğu iş birliği ve yönetişimle sentezleyebilen çalışma sayısı ise oldukça azdır. Bölgeye yönelik daha derinlikli bir anlayışı, dolayısıyla, güvenlik aktörleri arasında uyuşmazlıkların çözümünün yanı sıra iş birliği ve uzmanlık paylaşımını teşvik edebilecek çok disiplinli boyutların analize dâhil edildiği kapsamlı çalışmalara ihtiyaç bulunmaktadır. Bu çalışmada bahsi geçen uyuşmazlık konuları, gerçekçilik (realism), akılcılık (rationalism) ve devrimcilik (revolutionism) geleneklerini sentezleyerek özgün bir çerçeve sunabilen İngiliz Okulu perspektifinden irdelenmiştir. Sonuç bölümünde anlaşmazlıkların çözümü için uluslararası hukuka uygun olası çözüm önerileri İngiliz Okulu yaklaşımının sunduğu daha geniş kapsamlı bir çerçevede tartışılmıştır. Ayrıca bölgeye yönelik büyük çaplı yatırımları ve iş birliği anlaşmaları ile çeşitli tartışmalara yol açan Çin Halk Cumhuriyeti’nin (ÇHC) üçüncü aktör olarak bölge hâkimiyet mücadelesindeki rolü ve işlevi de incelemeye dâhil edilmiştir. Güç temelli yaklaşımların yerini, bağlayıcılığı bulunan uluslararası kuralların aldığı günümüzde Arktik Bölgesi’ndeki iş birliği potansiyelinin geliştirilebilmesi için başta kıyıdaş devletler olmak üzere uluslararası toplumun; küresel ısınma nedeniyle ortaya çıkan zengin enerji kaynaklarının ve yeni deniz ulaşım / ticaret yollarının sunduğu ticari ve ekonomik bir kazanç merkezi olmaktan ziyade ortak bilimsel çalışmaları destekleyen ve bölgede yaşayan yerli halkların ve toplulukların sosyoekonomik koşullarını ve insani gelişim düzeylerini artıracak önlemleri önceleyen politikalar geliştirmelerinin daha önemli olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır.

scholarly journals USA, Russia and European Countries in the Arctic: Cooperation or Confrontation?

2021 ◽  
pp. 0
Author(s):  
Valerii Zhuravel
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Russian Federation ◽  
Arctic Region ◽  
The United States ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
The North ◽  
Military Presence ◽  
The Russian Federation ◽  
The Military ◽  
The Arctic Region

Based on the analysis of the military-political and operational situation in the Arctic region, the article reveals the actual and potential threats to the national security of the Russian Federation from the United States and the countries of the NATO bloc. The directions of strengthening the military presence in the Arctic of the Arctic states and other alliance countries are characterised. It is emphasised that the North of Norway is becoming one of the most militarised regions in Scandinavia. It is concluded that the activation of NATO in the High North may lead to a reconfiguration of relations in the security sphere. The article reveals the measures of the Russian Federation to strengthen the defence capability in the Arctic direction, protect its sovereignty and territorial integrity, and normalise the situation and relations between Russia and the United States.

THE INFLUENCE OF SCOTTISH ACCOUNTANTS IN THE UNITED STATES: THE EARLY CASE OF THE SOCIETY OF ACCOUNTANTS IN EDINBURGH

1997 ◽  
Vol 24 (1) ◽  
pp. 117-141 ◽  
Author(s):  
T. A. LEE
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
General Theory ◽  
Research Program ◽  
The United States ◽  
The World ◽  
Early Case ◽  
The Impact ◽  
Chartered Accountants ◽  
The U.S

This study represents part of a long-term research program to investigate the influence of U.K. accountants on the development of professional accountancy in other parts of the world. It examines the impact of a small group of Scottish chartered accountants who emigrated to the U.S. in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Set against a general theory of emigration, the study's main results reveal the significant involvement of this group in the founding and development of U.S. accountancy. The influence is predominantly with respect to public accountancy and its main institutional organizations. Several of the individuals achieved considerable eminence in U.S. public accountancy.

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