Apneic Spells and Sleep States in Preterm Infants

PEDIATRICS ◽  
1976 ◽  
Vol 57 (1) ◽  
pp. 142-147
Author(s):  
M. Gabriel ◽  
M. Albani ◽  
F. J. Schulte
Keyword(s):  
Nervous System ◽  
Eye Movement ◽  
Preterm Infants ◽  
Rem Sleep ◽  
Synaptic Connections ◽  
Spinal Motoneurons ◽  
Active Sleep ◽  
Quiet Sleep ◽  
Recording Technique ◽  
Polygraphic Recording

The incidence of apneic spells during different sleep states, active sleep, quiet sleep, and undifferentiated sleep was determined in eight preterm infants of 30 to 35 weeks' conceptional age, by means of a polygraphic recording technique. They were free of perinatal and postnatal complications other than apnea. During their active or rapid eye movement (REM) sleep they showed significantly more apneic episodes which were also longer lasting and they were accompanied by bradycardia of a greater severity. The organization of the immature nervous system with a preponderance of inhibitory synaptic connections and the additional inhibition of spinal motoneurons during REM sleep are likely to be the cause of apneic spells in otherwise "normal" preterm infants.

Direct measurement of the energy expenditure of physical activity in preterm infants

1998 ◽  
Vol 85 (1) ◽  
pp. 223-230 ◽  
Author(s):  
Patti J. Thureen ◽  
Robert E. Phillips ◽  
Karen A. Baron ◽  
Mark P. DeMarie ◽  
William W. Hay
Keyword(s):  
Physical Activity ◽  
Energy Expenditure ◽  
Preterm Infants ◽  
Direct Measurement ◽  
Muscle Activity ◽  
Energy Cost ◽  
Force Plate ◽  
Total Energy Expenditure ◽  
Active Sleep ◽  
Quiet Sleep

The energy cost of physical activity (EEA) has been estimated to account for 5–17% of total energy expenditure (TEE) in neonates. To directly measure EEA, a force plate was developed and validated to measure work outputs ranging from 0.3 to 40 kcal ⋅ kg−1 ⋅ day−1. By use of this force plate plus indirect calorimetry, TEE and EEA were measured and correlated with five activity states in 24 infants with gestational age of 31.6 ± 0.5 (SE) wk and postnatal age of 24.8 ± 3.7 days. TEE and EEA were 69.2 ± 1.5 and 2.4 ± 0.2 kcal ⋅ kg−1 ⋅ day−1, respectively. EEA per state was 0.5 ± 0.0 (quiet sleep), 2.4 ± 0.2 (active sleep), 2.8 ± 0.4 (quiet awake), 7.5 ± 0.8 (active awake), and 15.1 ± 2.3 (crying) kcal ⋅ kg−1 ⋅ day−1. This provides the first direct measurement of the contribution of physical activity to TEE in preterm infants and will enable measurement of caloric expenditure from muscle activity in various disease conditions and development of nursing strategies to minimize unnecessary energy losses.

Arousal responses to hypertension in lambs: effect of sinoaortic denervation

1991 ◽  
Vol 260 (4) ◽  
pp. H1283-H1289 ◽  
Author(s):  
R. S. Horne ◽  
N. D. De Preu ◽  
P. J. Berger ◽  
A. M. Walker
Keyword(s):  
Eye Movement ◽  
Rem Sleep ◽  
Threshold Model ◽  
Arterial Oxygen Saturation ◽  
Arterial Oxygen ◽  
Stimulus Strength ◽  
Partial Pressure Of Oxygen ◽  
Quiet Sleep ◽  
Acute Hypertension ◽  
Neural Processes

Newborn lambs were subjected to hypertensive stimuli of 1-min duration to examine features of hypertension-induced arousal from sleep. Reflex mechanisms involved were studied by performing the same tests after sinoaortic denervation (SAD). In intact lambs, hypertension increased the probability of arousal from both quiet sleep (QS) and rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep. Hypertension resulted in arousal in 51% (QS) and 50% (REM) of tests. Arousal time was significantly longer in REM (29.3 +/- 0.9 s, mean +/- SE) than in QS (22.6 +/- 0.6 s, P less than 0.01). Arterial oxygen saturation (So2) and partial pressure of oxygen (Po2) measured at the point of arousal, or after 60 s if arousal failed to occur, were unchanged from control values. After SAD hypertension did not increase the probability of arousal. Arousals significantly decreased (P less than 0.001) to 31% (QS) and 10% (REM). These findings indicate that acute hypertension, mediated via arterial baroreceptors, is a potent stimulus for arousal. In intact lambs, the arousal probability increased and arousal time decreased with increasing stimulus strength (1-30 mmHg), but the arousal time difference between QS and REM remained constant. Consideration of these findings in terms of a simple baroreflex threshold model suggests that the slower response in REM sleep is explained by slower neural processes after the achievement of a critical arousal input rather than by a higher threshold for baroreceptor input in this state.

scholarly journals Optical imaging of the ventral medullary surface across sleep-wake states

1999 ◽  
Vol 277 (4) ◽  
pp. R1239-R1245 ◽  
Author(s):  
C. A. Richard ◽  
D. M. Rector ◽  
R. K. Harper ◽  
R. M. Harper
Keyword(s):  
Standard Deviation ◽  
Optical Imaging ◽  
Spontaneous Activity ◽  
Eye Movement ◽  
Rem Sleep ◽  
Neural Activity ◽  
Sleep Onset ◽  
Quiet Sleep ◽  
Ventral Medullary Surface ◽  
Wavelength Light

We hypothesized that spontaneous activity declines over widespread areas of the cat ventral medullary surface (VMS) during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. We assessed neural and hemodynamic activity, measured as changes in reflected 660- and 560-nm wavelength light, from the VMS during sleep and waking states in five adult, unrestrained cats and in two control cats. Relative to quiet sleep, overall activity declined, and variability, assessed by standard deviation, increased by 25% during REM sleep. Variability in activity during waking also increased by 45% over quiet sleep, but mean activity was unchanged. REM sleep onset was preceded by a reduction in the hemodynamic signal from 5 to 60 s before neural activity decline. The activity decline during REM sleep, previously noted in the goat rostral VMS, extends to intermediate VMS areas of the cat and differs from most neural sites, such as the cortex, hippocampus, and thalamus, which increase activity during REM sleep. The activity decline during REM sleep has the potential to modify VMS responsiveness to baroreceptor and chemoreceptor challenges during the REM state.

Diaphragmatic muscle tone

1979 ◽  
Vol 47 (2) ◽  
pp. 279-284 ◽  
Author(s):  
N. Muller ◽  
G. Volgyesi ◽  
L. Becker ◽  
M. H. Bryan ◽  
A. C. Bryan
Keyword(s):  
Eye Movement ◽  
Rem Sleep ◽  
Animal Studies ◽  
Muscle Tone ◽  
Muscle Spindles ◽  
Rapid Eye Movement ◽  
Tonic Activity ◽  
Halothane Anesthesia ◽  
Quiet Sleep ◽  
Diaphragmatic Muscle

It is generally believed that there is a scarcity of muscle spindles in the diaphragm and that there is no tonic activity at end expiration. This conclusion is based mainly on animal studies and the difficulty in differentiating tonic electromyogram activity from noise. We have, however, found a number of muscle spindles in the newborn human diagphragm, concentrated in the region of the central tendon. We also tried to detect tonic activity by decreasing it (by rapid-eye movement (REM) sleep or anesthesia) or increasing it (with abdominal loading). During REM sleep in five infants and five adults, using subcostal electrodes were observed a marked fall in tonic activity (P less than 0.001) compared to non-REM or quiet sleep. We also observed a reduction in diaphragmatic tonic activity with halothane anesthesia (P less than 0.001). With esophageal electrodes in adult subjects, there was a rise in tonic diaphragmatic activity proportional to the amount of abdomina load (P less than 0.001). We conclude that there are muscle spindles in the human diaphragm and that there is tonic activity at end expiration.

SLEEP CYCLE CHARACTERISTICS IN INFANTS

PEDIATRICS ◽  
1969 ◽  
Vol 43 (1) ◽  
pp. 65-70
Author(s):  
Evelyn Stern ◽  
Arthur H. Parmelee ◽  
Yoshio Akiyama ◽  
Marvin A. Schultz ◽  
Waldemar H. Wenner
Keyword(s):  
Cycle Length ◽  
Activity Cycle ◽  
Sleep Cycle ◽  
Normal Brain ◽  
Active Sleep ◽  
Quiet Sleep ◽  
Activity Cycles ◽  
Significant Measure ◽  
Polygraphic Recording ◽  
Rest Activity

Within the sleep of adults and infants there are cyclic fluctuations between quiet and active sleep. These fluctuations may also persist during wakefulness as rest-activity cycles but are less readily detected. They constitute a fundamental biological rhythm on which other daily rhythms are superimposed. In adults the rest-activity cycle is 90 minutes in duration. The quiet-active sleep cycles of term, 3-, and 8-month-old infants were determined by polygraphic recording of eye and body movements, respirations, and electroencephalogram. The cycle length at term was 47 minutes and 49 and 50 minutes at 3 and 8 months. The increase in cycle length with maturation was not significant, but there was a significant change in the proportion of quiet to active sleep within a cycle. At term they were equal, while at 8 months quiet sleep was twice as long as active sleep. Quiet sleep is a highly controlled state requiring complex feedback mechanisms. The increasing proportion of quiet sleep may be a significant measure of normal brain development.

Congenital Central Hypoventilation and Sleep State

PEDIATRICS ◽  
1980 ◽  
Vol 66 (3) ◽  
pp. 425-428
Author(s):  
Peter J. Fleming ◽  
Darlene Cade ◽  
M. Heather Bryan ◽  
A. Charles Bryan
Keyword(s):  
Metabolic Control ◽  
Eye Movement ◽  
Rem Sleep ◽  
Ventilatory Response ◽  
Respiratory Control ◽  
Rapid Eye Movement ◽  
Sleep State ◽  
Quiet Sleep ◽  
Awake State ◽  
Central Hypoventilation

Congenital central hypoventilation (Ondine's curse) is described in an infant with persistant symptoms throughout the first nine months of life. Respiratory control was most severely affected in quiet sleep, although abnormalities were present in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and while awake. Failure of metabolic control in quiet sleep led to profound hypoventilation. Behavioral or "behavioral-like" inputs in the awake state and REM sleep increased ventilation, but not to expected normal levels. The ventilatory response to inhaled 4% CO2 was markedly depressed in all states.

Alae Nasi Activation (Nasal Flaring) Decreases Nasal Resistance in Preterm Infants

PEDIATRICS ◽  
1983 ◽  
Vol 72 (3) ◽  
pp. 338-343 ◽  
Author(s):  
Waldemar A. Carlo ◽  
Richard J. Martin ◽  
Eugene N. Bruce ◽  
Kingman P. Strohl ◽  
Avroy A. Fanaroff
Keyword(s):  
Pressure Drop ◽  
Preterm Infants ◽  
Upper Airway ◽  
Skin Surface ◽  
Nasal Resistance ◽  
Active Sleep ◽  
Quiet Sleep ◽  
Surface Electrodes ◽  
Pharyngeal Pressure ◽  
Nasal Pressure

The effect of alae nasi activation on nasal resistance in a group of healthy preterm infants was measured. Alae nasi activity was determined via the alae nasi electromyogram obtained from skin surface electrodes during both active and quiet sleep. Nasal resistance was calculated from airflow measured with a mask pneumotachograph and transnasal pressure drop obtained by simultaneous measurement of nasal pressure via a catheter inserted in one nostril and mask pressure. The percentage of breaths accompanied by phasic alae nasi activity was higher during active sleep than during quiet sleep (43% ± 10% v 14% ± 6%; P < .005), and hypercapnic stimulation (4% CO2 inhalation) significantly increased the incidence of phasic alae nasi activity to comparable levels in both sleep states (82% ± 8% in active sleep and 82% ± 9% in quiet sleep). Elevation of tonic alae nasi activity also occurred more frequently during active sleep (P < .05). The presence of either phasic or elevated tonic alae nasi activity decreased nasal resistance by 23% ± 4% during active sleep and 21% ± 3% during quiet sleep. This reduction in nasal resistance resulted in either a lower transnasal pressure during inspiration, a higher peak inspiratory airflow, or a combination of the two. Alae nasi activity may be an important mechanism that facilitates ventilation by reducing nasal resistance, and it may help stabilize the upper airway by preventing the development of large negative pharyngeal pressure during inspiration.

Breath-to-breath variations in rate and depth of ventilation in sleeping infants

1982 ◽  
Vol 243 (1) ◽  
pp. R164-R169
Author(s):  
G. G. Haddad ◽  
T. L. Lai ◽  
M. A. Epstein ◽  
R. A. Epstein ◽  
K. F. Yu ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Tidal Volume ◽  
Linear Relationship ◽  
Eye Movement ◽  
Rem Sleep ◽  
Cycle Time ◽  
Strong Correlation ◽  
Inspiratory Time ◽  
Quiet Sleep ◽  
Positive Linear Relationship ◽  
Inspiratory Activity

Ventilatory measurements were made noninvasively over 2- to 3-h periods during sleep in each of nine normal infants at 1 mo of age. To assess the changes that occur in ventilation on a breath-to-breath basis, we 1) examined the variations of each of tidal volume (VT), respiratory cycle time (Ttot), expiratory time (TE), and inspiratory time (TI) and 2) studied their interrelationships. We found that the variations of VT, Ttot, and TE but not of TI were significantly greater in rapid-eye-movement (REM) than in quiet sleep. In addition, on a breath-to-breath basis, VT had a positive linear relationship and strong correlation with TI; however, the correlation between VT and TE was weak in both sleep states. VT/Ttot was found to be moderately and negatively correlated with Ttot in both REM and quiet sleep. VT was weakly correlated with Ttot in REM sleep and was, on the average, more correlated with Ttot in quiet sleep. We suggest that in infants 1) on a breath-to-breath basis, VT/Ttot is likely to drop if respiratory frequency is decreased and 2) VT is nonlinearly related to Ttot during sleep; this lack of linearity depends on the lack of constancy of VT/Ttot, which is in turn closely related to the variability of the "on-switching" of inspiratory activity.

State-Dependent GABAergic Inhibition of Sciatic Nerve-Evoked Responses of Dorsal Spinocerebellar Tract Neurons

2004 ◽  
Vol 92 (3) ◽  
pp. 1479-1490 ◽  
Author(s):  
Niwat Taepavarapruk ◽  
Shelly A. McErlane ◽  
Angela Chan ◽  
Sylvia Chow ◽  
Liz Fabian ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Sciatic Nerve ◽  
Peripheral Nerve ◽  
Eye Movement ◽  
The State ◽  
Response Magnitude ◽  
Evoked Responses ◽  
Active Sleep ◽  
Quiet Sleep ◽  
Spike Response ◽  
Spinocerebellar Tract

Peripheral nerve-evoked potentials recorded in the cerebellum 35 yr ago inferred that sensory transmission via the dorsal spinocerebellar tract (DSCT) is reduced occasionally and only during eye movements of active sleep compared with wakefulness or quiet sleep. A reduction or withdrawal of primary afferent input and/or ongoing inhibition of individual lumbar DSCT neurons may underlie this occurrence. This study distinguished between these possibilities by examining whether peripheral nerve-evoked responses recorded from individual DSCT neurons are suppressed specifically during active sleep, and if so, whether GABA mediates this phenomenon. Synaptic responses to threshold stimuli applied to the sciatic nerve were characterized by a single spike response at short latency and/or a longer latency burst of action potentials. During the state of quiet wakefulness, response magnitude did not differ from that observed during quiet sleep. During active sleep, short and long latency responses were suppressed by 26 and 14%, respectively, and returned to pre-active sleep levels following awakening from active sleep. Sciatic nerve-evoked early and late responses were further analyzed in a paired fashion around computer-tagged eye movement events that hallmark the state of active sleep. Response magnitude was suppressed by 14.4 and 11.5%, respectively, during eye movement events of active sleep. The GABAA antagonist bicuculline, applied juxtacellularly by microiontophoresis, abolished response suppression during non–eye movement periods and eye movement events of active sleep. In conclusion, synaptic transmission via DSCT neurons is inhibited by GABA tonically during non–eye movement periods and phasically during eye movement events of active sleep.

scholarly journals Evolutionary Origin of Distinct NREM and REM Sleep

2020 ◽  
Vol 11 ◽  
Author(s):  
Risa Yamazaki ◽  
Hirofumi Toda ◽  
Paul-Antoine Libourel ◽  
Yu Hayashi ◽  
Kaspar E. Vogt ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Nervous System ◽  
Eye Movement ◽  
Rem Sleep ◽  
Animal Species ◽  
Nrem Sleep ◽  
Evolutionary Origin ◽  
Model Organisms ◽  
Rapid Eye Movement ◽  
Different Types ◽  
Insight Into

Sleep is mandatory in most animals that have the nervous system and is universally observed in model organisms ranging from the nematodes, zebrafish, to mammals. However, it is unclear whether different sleep states fulfill common functions and are driven by shared mechanisms in these different animal species. Mammals and birds exhibit two obviously distinct states of sleep, i.e., non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, but it is unknown why sleep should be so segregated. Studying sleep in other animal models might give us clues that help solve this puzzle. Recent studies suggest that REM sleep, or ancestral forms of REM sleep might be found in non-mammalian or -avian species such as reptiles. These observations suggest that REM sleep and NREM sleep evolved earlier than previously thought. In this review, we discuss the evolutionary origin of the distinct REM/NREM sleep states to gain insight into the mechanistic and functional reason for these two different types of sleep.

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