scholarly journals Application of Eye Tracking in Puzzle Games for Adjunct Cognitive Markers: Pilot Observational Study in Older Adults (Preprint)

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Christine Krebs ◽  
Michael Falkner ◽  
Joel Niklaus ◽  
Luca Persello ◽  
Stefan Klöppel ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Visual Search ◽  
Eye Tracking ◽  
Executive Functions ◽  
Eye Movement ◽  
Cognitive Performance ◽  
Gaze Behavior ◽  
Laptop Computer ◽  
Board Size ◽  
Older Subjects ◽  
Puzzle Games

BACKGROUND Recent studies suggest that computerized puzzle games are enjoyable, easy to play, and engage attentional, visuospatial, and executive functions. They may help mediate impairments seen in cognitive decline in addition to being an assessment tool. Eye tracking provides a quantitative and qualitative analysis of gaze, which is highly useful in understanding visual search behavior. OBJECTIVE The goal of the research was to test the feasibility of eye tracking during a puzzle game and develop adjunct markers for cognitive performance using eye-tracking metrics. METHODS A desktop version of the Match-3 puzzle game with 15 difficulty levels was developed using Unity 3D (Unity Technologies). The goal of the Match-3 puzzle was to find configurations (target patterns) that could be turned into a row of 3 identical game objects (tiles) by swapping 2 adjacent tiles. Difficulty levels were created by manipulating the puzzle board size (all combinations of width and height from 4 to 8) and the number of unique tiles on the puzzle board (from 4 to 8). Each level consisted of 4 boards (ie, target patterns to match) with one target pattern each. In this study, the desktop version was presented on a laptop computer setup with eye tracking. Healthy older subjects were recruited to play a full set of 15 puzzle levels. A paper-pencil–based assessment battery was administered prior to the Match-3 game. The gaze behavior of all participants was recorded during the game. Correlation analyses were performed on eye-tracking data correcting for age to examine if gaze behavior pertains to target patterns and distractor patterns and changes with puzzle board size (set size). Additionally, correlations between cognitive performance and eye movement metrics were calculated. RESULTS A total of 13 healthy older subjects (mean age 70.67 [SD 4.75] years; range 63 to 80 years) participated in this study. In total, 3 training and 12 test levels were played by the participants. Eye tracking recorded 672 fixations in total, 525 fixations on distractor patterns and 99 fixations on target patterns. Significant correlations were found between executive functions (Trail Making Test B) and number of fixations on distractor patterns (<i>P</i>=.01) and average fixations (<i>P</i>=.005). CONCLUSIONS Overall, this study shows that eye tracking in puzzle games can act as a supplemental source of data for cognitive performance. The relationship between a paper-pencil test for executive functions and fixations confirms that both are related to the same cognitive processes. Therefore, eye movement metrics might be used as an adjunct marker for cognitive abilities like executive functions. However, further research is needed to evaluate the potential of the various eye movement metrics in combination with puzzle games as visual search and attentional marker.

scholarly journals Application of Eye Tracking in Puzzle Games for Adjunct Cognitive Markers: Pilot Observational Study in Older Adults

10.2196/24151 ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 9 (1) ◽  
pp. e24151
Author(s):  
Christine Krebs ◽  
Michael Falkner ◽  
Joel Niklaus ◽  
Luca Persello ◽  
Stefan Klöppel ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Visual Search ◽  
Eye Tracking ◽  
Executive Functions ◽  
Eye Movement ◽  
Cognitive Performance ◽  
Gaze Behavior ◽  
Laptop Computer ◽  
Board Size ◽  
Older Subjects ◽  
Puzzle Games

Background Recent studies suggest that computerized puzzle games are enjoyable, easy to play, and engage attentional, visuospatial, and executive functions. They may help mediate impairments seen in cognitive decline in addition to being an assessment tool. Eye tracking provides a quantitative and qualitative analysis of gaze, which is highly useful in understanding visual search behavior. Objective The goal of the research was to test the feasibility of eye tracking during a puzzle game and develop adjunct markers for cognitive performance using eye-tracking metrics. Methods A desktop version of the Match-3 puzzle game with 15 difficulty levels was developed using Unity 3D (Unity Technologies). The goal of the Match-3 puzzle was to find configurations (target patterns) that could be turned into a row of 3 identical game objects (tiles) by swapping 2 adjacent tiles. Difficulty levels were created by manipulating the puzzle board size (all combinations of width and height from 4 to 8) and the number of unique tiles on the puzzle board (from 4 to 8). Each level consisted of 4 boards (ie, target patterns to match) with one target pattern each. In this study, the desktop version was presented on a laptop computer setup with eye tracking. Healthy older subjects were recruited to play a full set of 15 puzzle levels. A paper-pencil–based assessment battery was administered prior to the Match-3 game. The gaze behavior of all participants was recorded during the game. Correlation analyses were performed on eye-tracking data correcting for age to examine if gaze behavior pertains to target patterns and distractor patterns and changes with puzzle board size (set size). Additionally, correlations between cognitive performance and eye movement metrics were calculated. Results A total of 13 healthy older subjects (mean age 70.67 [SD 4.75] years; range 63 to 80 years) participated in this study. In total, 3 training and 12 test levels were played by the participants. Eye tracking recorded 672 fixations in total, 525 fixations on distractor patterns and 99 fixations on target patterns. Significant correlations were found between executive functions (Trail Making Test B) and number of fixations on distractor patterns (P=.01) and average fixations (P=.005). Conclusions Overall, this study shows that eye tracking in puzzle games can act as a supplemental source of data for cognitive performance. The relationship between a paper-pencil test for executive functions and fixations confirms that both are related to the same cognitive processes. Therefore, eye movement metrics might be used as an adjunct marker for cognitive abilities like executive functions. However, further research is needed to evaluate the potential of the various eye movement metrics in combination with puzzle games as visual search and attentional marker.

Determining Gaze Behavior Patterns in On-Screen Testing

2020 ◽  
pp. 073563312097861
Author(s):  
Marko Pejić ◽  
Goran Savić ◽  
Milan Segedinac
Keyword(s):  
Eye Tracking ◽  
Eye Movement ◽  
Undergraduate Students ◽  
Behavior Pattern ◽  
Machine Learning Techniques ◽  
Software System ◽  
Gaze Behavior ◽  
Gaze Patterns ◽  
Presentation Methods ◽  
Tracking Device

This study proposes a software system for determining gaze patterns in on-screen testing. The system applies machine learning techniques to eye-movement data obtained from an eye-tracking device to categorize students according to their gaze behavior pattern while solving an on-screen test. These patterns are determined by converting eye movement coordinates into a sequence of regions of interest. The proposed software system extracts features from the sequence and performs clustering that groups students by their gaze pattern. To determine gaze patterns, the system contains components for communicating with an eye-tracking device, collecting and preprocessing students’ gaze data, and visualizing data using different presentation methods. This study presents a methodology to determine gaze patterns and the implementation details of the proposed software. The research was evaluated by determining the gaze patterns of 51 undergraduate students who took a general knowledge test containing 20 questions. This study aims to provide a software infrastructure that can use students’ gaze patterns as an additional indicator of their reading behaviors and their processing attention or difficulty, among other factors.

scholarly journals THE IMPROVEMENT OF PROFESSIONAL TRAINING ORGANIZATION OF THE X-RAY SCREENING SYSTEMS OPERATORS BY USING THE EYE MOVEMENTS REGISTRATION SYSTEM AND METHODS OF CLUSTER AND DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS

2018 ◽  
Vol 21 (3) ◽  
pp. 45-36
Author(s):  
A. K. Volkov ◽  
V. V. Ionov
Keyword(s):  
Visual Search ◽  
Eye Movements ◽  
Eye Tracking ◽  
Eye Movement ◽  
Professional Training ◽  
Visual Fatigue ◽  
Registration System ◽  
X Ray ◽  
Tracking Technology ◽  
Screening Systems

The X-ray screening systems operators’ professional training is based on the CBT (computer-based training) principle, which has algorithms of adaptive training. These algorithms in existing computer simulators include feedback mechanisms on the basis of trainability exponents – such as the frequency of detecting dangerous objects, the frequency of false alarms and detection time. Further enhancement of the operators’ simulator training effectiveness is associated with the integration of psychophysiological mechanisms providing monitoring of their functional state. Based on the analysis of the particularities of x-ray screening systems operators’ professional training associated with the formation of competences in dangerous objects visual search, the most perspective method is the Eye tracking technology. Domestic and foreign studies of the eye movements characteristics while solving professional tasks in training process are actively developed in various areas. There are no studies of visual search peculiarities in domestic practice in contrast to exterior studies. This research is aimed at considering the usage of Eye tracking technology in the training of x-ray screening systems operators. As the result of the experimental research with the use of mobile eye-tracker Sensomotoric Instruments Eye Tracking Glasses 2.0 the statistical data of eye movement parameters of two groups of subjects with different levels of training have been received. The application of cluster and discriminant analyses methods allowed to identify General classes of these parameters, as well as to obtain the discriminants functions for each group under examination. The theoretical significance of the peculiarities of the operators’ eye movement studies is to identify the patterns of prohibited items visual search. The practical importance of implementation of Eye tracking technology and statistical analysis methods is to increase the reliability of assessment the level of formed competence of x-ray screening systems’ operators in visual search, as well as to develop the potential system of operators’ state monitoring and assessing their visual fatigue.

scholarly journals Eye-Tracking as a Tool to Evaluate Functional Ability in Everyday Tasks in Glaucoma

2017 ◽  
Vol 2017 ◽  
pp. 1-10 ◽  
Author(s):  
Enkelejda Kasneci ◽  
Alex A. Black ◽  
Joanne M. Wood
Keyword(s):  
Quality Of Life ◽  
Visual Search ◽  
Visual Field ◽  
Eye Tracking ◽  
Task Performance ◽  
Eye Movement ◽  
Search Behavior ◽  
The Impact ◽  
Analytical Approaches

To date, few studies have investigated the eye movement patterns of individuals with glaucoma while they undertake everyday tasks in real-world settings. While some of these studies have reported possible compensatory gaze patterns in those with glaucoma who demonstrated good task performance despite their visual field loss, little is known about the complex interaction between field loss and visual scanning strategies and the impact on task performance and, consequently, on quality of life. We review existing approaches that have quantified the effect of glaucomatous visual field defects on the ability to undertake everyday activities through the use of eye movement analysis. Furthermore, we discuss current developments in eye-tracking technology and the potential for combining eye-tracking with virtual reality and advanced analytical approaches. Recent technological developments suggest that systems based on eye-tracking have the potential to assist individuals with glaucomatous loss to maintain or even improve their performance on everyday tasks and hence enhance their long-term quality of life. We discuss novel approaches for studying the visual search behavior of individuals with glaucoma that have the potential to assist individuals with glaucoma, through the use of personalized programs that take into consideration the individual characteristics of their remaining visual field and visual search behavior.

scholarly journals Identification of Target Objects from Gaze Behavior during a Virtual Navigation Task

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Leah R. Enders ◽  
Robert J. Smith ◽  
Stephen M. Gordon ◽  
Anthony J. Ries ◽  
Jonathan Touryan
Keyword(s):  
Visual Search ◽  
Eye Tracking ◽  
Virtual Environment ◽  
Visual Information ◽  
Search Task ◽  
Visual Search Task ◽  
Natural World ◽  
Movement Behavior ◽  
Gaze Behavior ◽  
Attention Task

Eye tracking has been an essential tool within the vision science community for many years. However, the majority of studies involving eye-tracking technology employ a relatively passive approach through the use of static imagery, prescribed motion, or video stimuli. This is in contrast to our everyday interaction with the natural world where we navigate our environment while actively seeking and using task-relevant visual information. For this reason, vision researchers are beginning to use virtual environment platforms, which offer interactive, realistic visual environments while maintaining a substantial level of experimental control. Here, we recorded eye movement behavior while participants freely navigated through a complex virtual environment. Within this environment, participants completed a visual search task where they were asked to find and count occurrence of specific targets among numerous distractor items. We assigned each participant into one of four target groups: Humvees, motorcycles, aircraft, or furniture. Our results show a significant relationship between gaze behavior and target objects across subject groups. Specifically, we see an increased number of fixations and increase dwell time on target relative to distractor objects. In addition, we included a divided attention task to investigate how search patterns changed with the addition of a secondary task. With increased cognitive load, subjects slowed their speed, decreased gaze on objects, and increased the number of objects scanned in the environment. Overall, our results confirm previous findings from more controlled laboratory settings and demonstrate that complex virtual environments can be used for active visual search experimentation, maintaining a high level of precision in the quantification of gaze information and visual attention. This study contributes to our understanding of how individuals search for information in a naturalistic virtual environment. Likewise, our paradigm provides an intriguing look into the heterogeneity of individual behaviors when completing an un-timed visual search task while actively navigating.

scholarly journals Efficient visual search for facial emotions in patients with major depression

2021 ◽  
Vol 21 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Charlott Maria Bodenschatz ◽  
Felix Czepluch ◽  
Anette Kersting ◽  
Thomas Suslow
Keyword(s):  
Visual Search ◽  
Eye Tracking ◽  
Spatial Attention ◽  
Facial Expressions ◽  
Study Groups ◽  
Fixation Time ◽  
Gaze Behavior ◽  
Healthy Individuals ◽  
Emotional Facial Expressions ◽  
Manual Response

Abstract Background Major depressive disorder has been associated with specific attentional biases in processing emotional facial expressions: heightened attention for negative and decreased attention for positive faces. However, using visual search paradigms, previous reaction-time-based research failed, in general, to find evidence for increased spatial attention toward negative facial expressions and reduced spatial attention toward positive facial expressions in depressed individuals. Eye-tracking analyses allow for a more detailed examination of visual search processes over time during the perception of multiple stimuli and can provide more specific insights into the attentional processing of multiple emotional stimuli. Methods Gaze behavior of 38 clinically depressed individuals and 38 gender matched healthy controls was compared in a face-in-the-crowd task. Pictures of happy, angry, and neutral facial expressions were utilized as target and distractor stimuli. Four distinct measures of eye gaze served as dependent variables: (a) latency to the target face, (b) number of distractor faces fixated prior to fixating the target, (c) mean fixation time per distractor face before fixating the target and (d) mean fixation time on the target. Results Depressed and healthy individuals did not differ in their manual response times. Our eye-tracking data revealed no differences between study groups in attention guidance to emotional target faces as well as in the duration of attention allocation to emotional distractor and target faces. However, depressed individuals fixated fewer distractor faces before fixating the target than controls, regardless of valence of expressions. Conclusions Depressed individuals seem to process angry and happy expressions in crowds of faces mainly in the same way as healthy individuals. Our data indicate no biased attention guidance to emotional targets and no biased processing of angry and happy distractors and targets in depression during visual search. Under conditions of clear task demand depressed individuals seem to be able to allocate and guide their attention in crowds of angry and happy faces as efficiently as healthy individuals.

scholarly journals Gaze Behavior During Navigation and Visual Search of an Open-World Virtual Environment

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 ◽  
Author(s):  
Leah R. Enders ◽  
Robert J. Smith ◽  
Stephen M. Gordon ◽  
Anthony J. Ries ◽  
Jonathan Touryan
Keyword(s):  
Visual Search ◽  
Visual Attention ◽  
Eye Tracking ◽  
Virtual Environment ◽  
Search Task ◽  
Visual Search Task ◽  
Natural World ◽  
Movement Behavior ◽  
Gaze Behavior ◽  
Open World

Eye tracking has been an essential tool within the vision science community for many years. However, the majority of studies involving eye-tracking technology employ a relatively passive approach through the use of static imagery, prescribed motion, or video stimuli. This is in contrast to our everyday interaction with the natural world where we navigate our environment while actively seeking and using task-relevant visual information. For this reason, an increasing number of vision researchers are employing virtual environment platforms, which offer interactive, realistic visual environments while maintaining a substantial level of experimental control. Here, we recorded eye movement behavior while subjects freely navigated through a rich, open-world virtual environment. Within this environment, subjects completed a visual search task where they were asked to find and count occurrence of specific targets among numerous distractor items. We assigned each participant into one of four target conditions: Humvees, motorcycles, aircraft, or furniture. Our results show a statistically significant relationship between gaze behavior and target objects across Target Conditions with increased visual attention toward assigned targets. Specifically, we see an increase in the number of fixations and an increase in dwell time on target relative to distractor objects. In addition, we included a divided attention task to investigate how search changed with the addition of a secondary task. With increased cognitive load, subjects slowed their speed, decreased gaze on objects, and increased the number of objects scanned in the environment. Overall, our results confirm previous findings and support that complex virtual environments can be used for active visual search experimentation, maintaining a high level of precision in the quantification of gaze information and visual attention. This study contributes to our understanding of how individuals search for information in a naturalistic (open-world) virtual environment. Likewise, our paradigm provides an intriguing look into the heterogeneity of individual behaviors when completing an un-timed visual search task while actively navigating.

Effects of a Group Program to Increase Cognitive Performance Through Cognitively Stimulating Leisure Activities in Healthy Older Subjects

GeroPsych ◽  
2011 ◽  
Vol 24 (2) ◽  
pp. 83-92 ◽  
Author(s):  
Valentina A. Tesky ◽  
Christian Thiel ◽  
Winfried Banzer ◽  
Johannes Pantel
Keyword(s):  
Cognitive Function ◽  
Cognitive Performance ◽  
Older Persons ◽  
Intervention Program ◽  
Leisure Activities ◽  
The Elderly ◽  
Cognitive Stimulation ◽  
Group Program ◽  
Positive Effects ◽  
Older Subjects

To investigate the effects of leisure activities on cognitive performance of healthy older subjects, an innovative intervention program was developed. Frequent participation in cognitively stimulating activities (i.e., reading, playing chess, or playing music) is associated with reduced risk of dementia. AKTIVA (active cognitive stimulation – prevention in the elderly) is an intervention program designed to enhance cognitive stimulation in everyday life by increasing cognitive stimulating leisure activities. The present study determines the effects of AKTIVA on cognitive function, mood and attitude toward aging in a sample of older participants from the general population. Several measurement instruments were used including the Alzheimer’s Disease Assessment Scale (ADAS-Cog), the Trail-Making Test (TMT), and the Memory Complaint Questionnaire (MAC-Q). Initially, the sample consisted of 307 older persons (170 female, 72 ± 7 years). The intervention was evaluated with a randomized, controlled pre-post follow-up design. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: AKTIVA intervention (n = 126), AKTIVA intervention plus nutrition and exercise counseling (n = 84), no-intervention control group (n = 97). The AKTIVA intervention consisted of 8 weekly sessions and two booster sessions after a break of 4 months. Participation in the group program resulted in positive effects on cognitive function and attitude toward aging for subassembly groups. Older persons (≥ 75 years) showed enhanced speed of information processing (by TMT Version A) (F = 4.17*, p < .05); younger participants (< 75 years) showed an improvement in subjective memory decline (by MAC-Q) (F = 2.55*, p < .05). Additionally, AKTIVA enhanced the frequency of activities for leisure activities for subassembly groups. The results of this study suggest that the AKTIVA program can be used to increase cognitively stimulating leisure activities in the elderly. Further research is necessary to identify the long-term effects of this intervention particularly with respect to the prevention of dementia.

Effects of Fatigue on Cognitive Performance in Long-Duration Simulated Flight Missions

2020 ◽  
Vol 10 (2) ◽  
pp. 82-93
Author(s):  
Eduardo Rosa ◽  
Ola Eiken ◽  
Mikael Grönkvist ◽  
Roger Kölegård ◽  
Nicklas Dahlström ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Executive Functions ◽  
Task Performance ◽  
Cognitive Performance ◽  
Cognitive Tasks ◽  
Fatigue Index ◽  
Fighter Aircraft ◽  
Long Duration ◽  
Metacognitive Accuracy

Abstract. Fighter pilots may be exposed to extended flight missions. Consequently, there is increasing concern about fatigue. We investigated the effects of fatigue and cognitive performance in a simulated 11-hr mission in the 39 Gripen fighter aircraft. Five cognitive tasks were used to assess cognitive performance. Fatigue was measured with the Samn–Perelli Fatigue Index. Results showed that performance in the non-executive task degraded after approximately 7 hr. Fatigue ratings showed a matching trend to the performance in this task. Performance in tasks taxing executive functions did not decline. We interpreted that fatigue can be overridden by increased attentional effort for executive tasks but not for non-executive components of cognition. Participants underestimated their performance and metacognitive accuracy was not influenced by fatigue.

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