Determining Gaze Behavior Patterns in On-Screen Testing

This study proposes a software system for determining gaze patterns in on-screen testing. The system applies machine learning techniques to eye-movement data obtained from an eye-tracking device to categorize students according to their gaze behavior pattern while solving an on-screen test. These patterns are determined by converting eye movement coordinates into a sequence of regions of interest. The proposed software system extracts features from the sequence and performs clustering that groups students by their gaze pattern. To determine gaze patterns, the system contains components for communicating with an eye-tracking device, collecting and preprocessing students’ gaze data, and visualizing data using different presentation methods. This study presents a methodology to determine gaze patterns and the implementation details of the proposed software. The research was evaluated by determining the gaze patterns of 51 undergraduate students who took a general knowledge test containing 20 questions. This study aims to provide a software infrastructure that can use students’ gaze patterns as an additional indicator of their reading behaviors and their processing attention or difficulty, among other factors.

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A Fast and Effective System for Analysis of Optokinetic Waveforms with a Low-Cost Eye Tracking Device

Healthcare ◽

10.3390/healthcare9010010 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 9 (1) ◽

pp. 10

Author(s):

Chong-Bin Tsai ◽

Wei-Yu Hung ◽

Wei-Yen Hsu

Keyword(s):

Eye Movements ◽

Eye Tracking ◽

Eye Movement ◽

Low Cost ◽

Saccadic Eye Movements ◽

Slow Phase ◽

Eye Tracker ◽

Effective System ◽

Tracking Device ◽

Traditional Approaches

Optokinetic nystagmus (OKN) is an involuntary eye movement induced by motion of a large proportion of the visual field. It consists of a “slow phase (SP)” with eye movements in the same direction as the movement of the pattern and a “fast phase (FP)” with saccadic eye movements in the opposite direction. Study of OKN can reveal valuable information in ophthalmology, neurology and psychology. However, the current commercially available high-resolution and research-grade eye tracker is usually expensive. Methods & Results: We developed a novel fast and effective system combined with a low-cost eye tracking device to accurately quantitatively measure OKN eye movement. Conclusions: The experimental results indicate that the proposed method achieves fast and promising results in comparisons with several traditional approaches.

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Research on Information Engineering with Infrared Camera Measurement in Eye Tracking Technology

Advanced Materials Research ◽

10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.952.257 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 952 ◽

pp. 257-260

Author(s):

Le Yang Chen ◽

Fan Zhang

Keyword(s):

Eye Tracking ◽

Coordinate System ◽

Eye Movement ◽

Infrared Camera ◽

Center Position ◽

Information Engineering ◽

Calibration Algorithm ◽

Point Calculation ◽

Tracking Device ◽

Tracking Technology

The thesis provides detail research on eye movement device theory and realization with infrared camera. It discusses pupil coordinate system and field of view coordinate system, calibration and displaying of real-time eye movement measure for eye tracking device, calibration algorithm for actual focus point calculation by pupil center position, and analysis of Eye movement device.

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Application of Eye Tracking in Puzzle Games for Adjunct Cognitive Markers: Pilot Observational Study in Older Adults (Preprint)

10.2196/preprints.24151 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Christine Krebs ◽

Michael Falkner ◽

Joel Niklaus ◽

Luca Persello ◽

Stefan Klöppel ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Visual Search ◽

Eye Tracking ◽

Executive Functions ◽

Eye Movement ◽

Cognitive Performance ◽

Gaze Behavior ◽

Laptop Computer ◽

Board Size ◽

Older Subjects ◽

Puzzle Games

BACKGROUND Recent studies suggest that computerized puzzle games are enjoyable, easy to play, and engage attentional, visuospatial, and executive functions. They may help mediate impairments seen in cognitive decline in addition to being an assessment tool. Eye tracking provides a quantitative and qualitative analysis of gaze, which is highly useful in understanding visual search behavior. OBJECTIVE The goal of the research was to test the feasibility of eye tracking during a puzzle game and develop adjunct markers for cognitive performance using eye-tracking metrics. METHODS A desktop version of the Match-3 puzzle game with 15 difficulty levels was developed using Unity 3D (Unity Technologies). The goal of the Match-3 puzzle was to find configurations (target patterns) that could be turned into a row of 3 identical game objects (tiles) by swapping 2 adjacent tiles. Difficulty levels were created by manipulating the puzzle board size (all combinations of width and height from 4 to 8) and the number of unique tiles on the puzzle board (from 4 to 8). Each level consisted of 4 boards (ie, target patterns to match) with one target pattern each. In this study, the desktop version was presented on a laptop computer setup with eye tracking. Healthy older subjects were recruited to play a full set of 15 puzzle levels. A paper-pencil–based assessment battery was administered prior to the Match-3 game. The gaze behavior of all participants was recorded during the game. Correlation analyses were performed on eye-tracking data correcting for age to examine if gaze behavior pertains to target patterns and distractor patterns and changes with puzzle board size (set size). Additionally, correlations between cognitive performance and eye movement metrics were calculated. RESULTS A total of 13 healthy older subjects (mean age 70.67 [SD 4.75] years; range 63 to 80 years) participated in this study. In total, 3 training and 12 test levels were played by the participants. Eye tracking recorded 672 fixations in total, 525 fixations on distractor patterns and 99 fixations on target patterns. Significant correlations were found between executive functions (Trail Making Test B) and number of fixations on distractor patterns (<i>P</i>=.01) and average fixations (<i>P</i>=.005). CONCLUSIONS Overall, this study shows that eye tracking in puzzle games can act as a supplemental source of data for cognitive performance. The relationship between a paper-pencil test for executive functions and fixations confirms that both are related to the same cognitive processes. Therefore, eye movement metrics might be used as an adjunct marker for cognitive abilities like executive functions. However, further research is needed to evaluate the potential of the various eye movement metrics in combination with puzzle games as visual search and attentional marker.

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Identifying Expert and Novice Visual Scanpath Patterns and Their Relationship to Assessing Learning-Relevant Student Characteristics

Frontiers in Education ◽

10.3389/feduc.2020.612175 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 5 ◽

Author(s):

Christian Kosel ◽

Doris Holzberger ◽

Tina Seidel

Keyword(s):

Eye Tracking ◽

Eye Movement ◽

Cognitive Processes ◽

Student Characteristics ◽

Visual Behavior ◽

Judgment Accuracy ◽

Gaze Patterns ◽

Expert And Novice ◽

Visual Scanpath ◽

Classroom Lesson

The paper addresses cognitive processes during a teacher's professional task of assessing learning-relevant student characteristics. We explore how eye-movement patterns (scanpaths) differ across expert and novice teachers during an assessment situation. In an eye-tracking experiment, participants watched an authentic video of a classroom lesson and were subsequently asked to assess five different students. Instead of using typically reported averaged gaze data (e.g., number of fixations), we used gaze patterns as an indicator for visual behavior. We extracted scanpath patterns, compared them qualitatively (common sub-pattern) and quantitatively (scanpath entropy) between experts and novices, and related teachers' visual behavior to their assessment competence. Results show that teachers' scanpaths were idiosyncratic and more similar to teachers of the same expertise group. Moreover, experts monitored all target students more regularly and made recurring scans to re-adjust their assessment. Lastly, this behavior was quantified using Shannon's entropy score. Results indicate that experts' scanpaths were more complex, involved more frequent revisits of all students, and that experts transferred their attention between all students with equal probability. Experts' visual behavior was also statistically related to higher judgment accuracy.

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Gaze and eye movement in dialogue interpreting: An eye-tracking study

Bilingualism Language and Cognition ◽

10.1017/s1366728920000309 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 23 (4) ◽

pp. 780-787 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Elisabet Tiselius ◽

Kayle Sneed

Keyword(s):

Eye Tracking ◽

Cognitive Load ◽

Eye Movement ◽

Cognitive Processes ◽

Cognitive Effort ◽

Simultaneous Interpreting ◽

Gaze Patterns ◽

Averted Gaze

AbstractPrevious studies have investigated the cognitive processes of simultaneous interpreting and translation using eye-tracking. No study has yet utilized eye-tracking to investigate cognitive load and cognitive effort in dialogue interpreting. An eye-tracking study was conducted on two groups of interpreters (experienced and inexperienced) with varying language backgrounds during a staged dialogue interpreting session. The aim of the study was to explore gaze patterns in dialogue interpreting in relation to the interpreters’ action and translation direction. The results indicated there were differences in gaze patterns depending on the action and the language used. Participants averted gaze more when interpreting into the allophone language (the L2 for a majority of the participants in this study). This may indicate that interpreting into L2 in a dialogue may involve more cognitive effort than interpreting into L1. Finally, gaze patterns did not differ significantly between inexperienced and experienced dialogue interpreters.

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Evaluation of an eye tracking setup for studying visual attention in face-to-face conversations

Scientific Reports ◽

10.1038/s41598-021-81987-x ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 11 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Antonia Vehlen ◽

Ines Spenthof ◽

Daniel Tönsing ◽

Markus Heinrichs ◽

Gregor Domes

Keyword(s):

Eye Tracking ◽

Data Quality ◽

Autism Spectrum ◽

Independent Study ◽

Facial Features ◽

Gaze Behavior ◽

Tracking Accuracy ◽

Attentional Processing ◽

Face To Face ◽

Gaze Patterns

AbstractMany eye tracking studies use facial stimuli presented on a display to investigate attentional processing of social stimuli. To introduce a more realistic approach that allows interaction between two real people, we evaluated a new eye tracking setup in three independent studies in terms of data quality, short-term reliability and feasibility. Study 1 measured the robustness, precision and accuracy for calibration stimuli compared to a classical display-based setup. Study 2 used the identical measures with an independent study sample to compare the data quality for a photograph of a face (2D) and the face of the real person (3D). Study 3 evaluated data quality over the course of a real face-to-face conversation and examined the gaze behavior on the facial features of the conversation partner. Study 1 provides evidence that quality indices for the scene-based setup were comparable to those of a classical display-based setup. Average accuracy was better than 0.4° visual angle. Study 2 demonstrates that eye tracking quality is sufficient for 3D stimuli and robust against short interruptions without re-calibration. Study 3 confirms the long-term stability of tracking accuracy during a face-to-face interaction and demonstrates typical gaze patterns for facial features. Thus, the eye tracking setup presented here seems feasible for studying gaze behavior in dyadic face-to-face interactions. Eye tracking data obtained with this setup achieves an accuracy that is sufficient for investigating behavior such as eye contact in social interactions in a range of populations including clinical conditions, such as autism spectrum and social phobia.

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Objective measurement of nine gaze-directions using an eye-tracking device

Journal of Eye Movement Research ◽

10.16910/jemr.13.6.4 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 13 (6) ◽

Author(s):

Yo Iwata ◽

Tomoya Handa ◽

Hitoshi Ishikawa

Keyword(s):

Eye Tracking ◽

Eye Movement ◽

Screen Test ◽

Gaze Direction ◽

The Novel ◽

Measuring Device ◽

Objective Measurements ◽

Novel Device ◽

Healthy Young People ◽

Tracking Device

Purpose: To investigate the usefulness and efficacy of a novel eye-tracking device that can objectively measure nine gaze-directions. Methods: We measured each of the nine gaze-directions subjectively, using a conventional Hess screen test, and objectively, using the nine gaze-direction measuring device, and de-termined the correlation, addition error, and proportional error. We obtained two consecu-tive measurements of the nine gaze-directions using the newly developed device in healthy young people with exophoria and investigated the reproducibility of the measurements. We further measured the nine gaze-directions using a Hess screen test and the newly developed device in three subjects with cover test-based strabismus and compared the results. Results: We observed that the objective measurements obtained with the newly developed gaze-direction measuring device had significant correlation and addition error compared to the conventional subjective method, and we found no proportional error. These measure-ments had good reproducibility. Conclusion: The novel device can be used to observe delayed eye movement associated with limited eye movement in the affected eye, as well as the associated excessive movement of the healthy eye in patients with strabismus, similar to the Hess screen test. This is a useful device that can provide objective measurements of nine gaze-directions.

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Application of Eye Tracking in Puzzle Games for Adjunct Cognitive Markers: Pilot Observational Study in Older Adults

JMIR Serious Games ◽

10.2196/24151 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 9 (1) ◽

pp. e24151

Author(s):

Christine Krebs ◽

Michael Falkner ◽

Joel Niklaus ◽

Luca Persello ◽

Stefan Klöppel ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Visual Search ◽

Eye Tracking ◽

Executive Functions ◽

Eye Movement ◽

Cognitive Performance ◽

Gaze Behavior ◽

Laptop Computer ◽

Board Size ◽

Older Subjects ◽

Puzzle Games

Background Recent studies suggest that computerized puzzle games are enjoyable, easy to play, and engage attentional, visuospatial, and executive functions. They may help mediate impairments seen in cognitive decline in addition to being an assessment tool. Eye tracking provides a quantitative and qualitative analysis of gaze, which is highly useful in understanding visual search behavior. Objective The goal of the research was to test the feasibility of eye tracking during a puzzle game and develop adjunct markers for cognitive performance using eye-tracking metrics. Methods A desktop version of the Match-3 puzzle game with 15 difficulty levels was developed using Unity 3D (Unity Technologies). The goal of the Match-3 puzzle was to find configurations (target patterns) that could be turned into a row of 3 identical game objects (tiles) by swapping 2 adjacent tiles. Difficulty levels were created by manipulating the puzzle board size (all combinations of width and height from 4 to 8) and the number of unique tiles on the puzzle board (from 4 to 8). Each level consisted of 4 boards (ie, target patterns to match) with one target pattern each. In this study, the desktop version was presented on a laptop computer setup with eye tracking. Healthy older subjects were recruited to play a full set of 15 puzzle levels. A paper-pencil–based assessment battery was administered prior to the Match-3 game. The gaze behavior of all participants was recorded during the game. Correlation analyses were performed on eye-tracking data correcting for age to examine if gaze behavior pertains to target patterns and distractor patterns and changes with puzzle board size (set size). Additionally, correlations between cognitive performance and eye movement metrics were calculated. Results A total of 13 healthy older subjects (mean age 70.67 [SD 4.75] years; range 63 to 80 years) participated in this study. In total, 3 training and 12 test levels were played by the participants. Eye tracking recorded 672 fixations in total, 525 fixations on distractor patterns and 99 fixations on target patterns. Significant correlations were found between executive functions (Trail Making Test B) and number of fixations on distractor patterns (P=.01) and average fixations (P=.005). Conclusions Overall, this study shows that eye tracking in puzzle games can act as a supplemental source of data for cognitive performance. The relationship between a paper-pencil test for executive functions and fixations confirms that both are related to the same cognitive processes. Therefore, eye movement metrics might be used as an adjunct marker for cognitive abilities like executive functions. However, further research is needed to evaluate the potential of the various eye movement metrics in combination with puzzle games as visual search and attentional marker.

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Improving the pilot selection process by using eye-tracking tools

Journal of Eye Movement Research ◽

10.16910/jemr.12.3.4 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 12 (3) ◽

Author(s):

Slaviša Ivan Vlačić ◽

Aleksandar Zdravko Knežević ◽

Saptarshi Mandal ◽

Sanja Rođenkov ◽

Panos Vitsas

Keyword(s):

Eye Tracking ◽

Eye Movement ◽

High Performance ◽

Selection Process ◽

Psychological Testing ◽

Visual Response ◽

Visual Behavior ◽

The Difference ◽

Tracking Device ◽

Pilot Selection

This paper improves the understanding of the use of eye-tracking tools in the pilot selection process. Research of eye movement and attention distribution of candidate pilots may provide the capability for visual behavior prediction in more demanding flight training phases. The research included psychological testing, flight screening of subjects and their achievements in a flight simulator in combination with an eye-tracking device. Participants were divided into three categories: high performance, average performance, and low performance and separately regarded through psychological testing results and flight screening results. An eye-tracking device tracked visual behavior of subjects through the scope and speed of visual perception. The number of fixations and revisits recorded during the simulated visual flight conditions measured the difference in visual response between subjects. Comparison of results showed a positive correlation with psychological test results. Correlation with flight screening selection was not confirmed. We used the new network-based approach with three target importance measures to overcome the shortcomings of traditional eye movement metrics. The results of the adopted network approach presented in the form of graphs and analysis of normalized importance measures showed that it was possible to extract specific saccade strategy for each participant. Discovered differences between them positively detected week ones. In this way, Eye-tracking tools can potentially improve the pilot selection process and complement other tests and assessment methods.

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Infants’ Gaze Patterns for Same-Race and Other-Race Faces, and the Other-Race Effect

Brain Sciences ◽

10.3390/brainsci10060331 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 10 (6) ◽

pp. 331 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Anna Krasotkina ◽

Antonia Götz ◽

Barbara Höhle ◽

Gudrun Schwarzer

Keyword(s):

Eye Tracking ◽

The Other ◽

Fixation Time ◽

Gaze Behavior ◽

Gaze Patterns ◽

Race Effect

The other-race effect (ORE) can be described as difficulties in discriminating between faces of ethnicities other than one’s own, and can already be observed at approximately 9 months of age. Recent studies also showed that infants visually explore same-and other-race faces differently. However, it is still unclear whether infants’ looking behavior for same- and other-race faces is related to their face discrimination abilities. To investigate this question we conducted a habituation–dishabituation experiment to examine Caucasian 9-month-old infants’ gaze behavior, and their discrimination of same- and other-race faces, using eye-tracking measurements. We found that infants looked longer at the eyes of same-race faces over the course of habituation, as compared to other-race faces. After habituation, infants demonstrated a clear other-race effect by successfully discriminating between same-race faces, but not other-race faces. Importantly, the infants’ ability to discriminate between same-race faces significantly correlated with their fixation time towards the eyes of same-race faces during habituation. Thus, our findings suggest that for infants old enough to begin exhibiting the ORE, gaze behavior during habituation is related to their ability to differentiate among same-race faces, compared to other-race faces.

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