Parental Education Ain’t Enough: A Study of Race (Racism), Parental Education, and Children’s Thalamus Volume

Introduction. The thalamus is the hub of the brain and has a significant role in various brain activities. Purpose. This study explored racial differences in the association between parental education and thalamus volume among American children. Methods. Using data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD), we analyzed the structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging (sMRI) data of 11141 9-10 years old children. The main outcome was the thalamus volume. The independent variable was parental education. Age, sex, ethnicity, family marital status, and intracranial volume were the covariates. Race was the moderator. To analyze the data, we used mixed-effects regression models. Results. In race-stratified models, high parental education was associated with smaller thalamus volume in White but not Black children. In the pooled sample, significant interactions were found between race and parental education suggesting that the effect of parental education on left thalamus volume is significantly smaller for Blacks and mixed/other race children than White children. Conclusions. The effect of parental education on children’s thalamus volume seems to be weaker for Black and other/mixed-race children than their White counterparts. This finding is in support of Minorites’ Diminished Returns (MDRs) that suggest due to social stratification and racism, economic resources have weaker than expected effects in minority populations.

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Mental Rotation in American Children: Diminished Returns of Parental Education in Black Families

Pediatric Reports ◽

10.3390/pediatric12030028 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 12 (3) ◽

pp. 130-141

Author(s):

Shervin Assari

Keyword(s):

Mental Rotation ◽

Social Stratification ◽

Parental Education ◽

Cross Sectional Study ◽

Efficiency Score ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

White Children ◽

Family Socioeconomic Status ◽

White Families ◽

American Children

Background: While parental education and family socioeconomic status (SES) are associated with an increase in children’s cognitive functioning, and less is known about racial variation in these effects. Minorities’ Diminished Returns (MDRs) suggest that, under racism and social stratification, family SES and particularly parental education show weaker effects on children’s tangible outcomes for marginalized, racialized, and minoritized families, particularly Blacks, compared to Whites. Aim: We conducted this study to compare the effect of parental education on children’s mental rotation abilities, as an important aspect of cognitive function, by race. Methods: This cross-sectional study included 11,135 9–10-year-old American children. Data came from baseline of the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. The independent variable was parental education. The dependent variable, mental rotation, was measured by the Little Man Task. Ethnicity, gender, age, marital status, and household income were the covariates. Results: Parental education was positively associated with mental rotation. However, parental education showed a weaker association with mental rotation in Black than in White families. This was documented by a significant interaction between race and parental education on children’s efficiency score. Conclusion: Parental education shows a weaker correlation with mental rotation of Black rather than White children, which is probably because of racism, social stratification, and discrimination. This finding is in line with the MDRs phenomenon and suggests that marginalization and racism may interfere with the influences of parental assets and resources and Black American children’s development.

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Age-Related Decline in Children’s Reward Sensitivity: Blacks’ Diminished Returns

Research in Health Science ◽

10.22158/rhs.v5n3p112 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 5 (3) ◽

pp. p112 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Shervin Assari

Keyword(s):

Racial Differences ◽

Parental Education ◽

Black Children ◽

Cross Sectional Study ◽

Reward Sensitivity ◽

Behavioral Approach ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

White Children ◽

Age Related ◽

American Children

Background: It is important to study the correlates of reward sensitivity since it predicts high-risk behaviors. While ageing reduces children’s reward sensitivity and its associated risk taking, there is more to find out about racial differences in regard to the effect of age on reward sensitivity. Minorities’ Diminished Returns (MDRs) suggest that resources and assets show weaker effects on Black children than White children. Aim: We compared White children to Black children as for the effects of age on reward sensitivity. Methods: This cross-sectional study included 10533 American children who participated in the baseline of the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. The independent variable was age, while the dependent variable was reward sensitivity as captured by the behavioral approach/behavioral avoidance system (BAS-BIS). Gender, parental education, marital status, parental education, and household income were the covariates. Results: Higher age was associated with less reward sensitivity. A significant interaction was found between race and age when it comes to children’s reward sensitivity. It suggested that age is associated with a smaller gain in terms of reduced reward sensitivity in Black children than White children. Conclusion: Age is more likely to reduce reward sensitivity in White children than Black children. This finding is in line with MDRs, and may be due to social racism, segregation, stratification, and discrimination.

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Race Differences in Antisocial Behaviors and Attitudes and Early Initiation of Substance Use

Journal of Drug Education ◽

10.2190/3bhh-3nat-bynk-d3vc ◽

1992 ◽

Vol 22 (2) ◽

pp. 115-130 ◽

Cited By ~ 32

Author(s):

Elizabeth A. Wells ◽

Diane M. Morrison ◽

Mary R. Gillmore ◽

Richard F. Catalano ◽

Bonita Iritani ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Antisocial Behavior ◽

Racial Differences ◽

Asian American ◽

Economic Status ◽

Fifth Grade ◽

Racial Groups ◽

White Children ◽

Black And White ◽

Antisocial Attitudes ◽

American Children

This article examines racial differences in self-reported delinquency, school trouble, antisocial attitudes, and toughness and in teacher-rated aggressive and inattentive behaviors among fifth grade black, white, and Asian American subjects. Also examined are the relationships of these variables to substance initiation within each racial group. Controlling for socio-economic status, racial groups differed from one another in self-reported delinquency, school trouble and toughness, and in teacher-rated aggressiveness and inattention. Antisocial behavior and attitudes were stronger predictors of substance initiation for Asian American than for black and white children. For white children both self-reported and teacher-rated behavior were significantly related to substance initiation. For black children, only self-reported antisocial behavior, and for Asian American children only self-reported delinquent behavior and attitudes predicted substance initiation. Implications for prevention and research are discussed.

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Parental Education, Household Income, and Cortical Surface Area among 9–10 Years Old Children: Minorities’ Diminished Returns

Brain Sciences ◽

10.3390/brainsci10120956 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 10 (12) ◽

pp. 956

Author(s):

Shervin Assari

Keyword(s):

Brain Development ◽

Surface Area ◽

Household Income ◽

Parental Education ◽

Cortical Surface ◽

Whole Brain ◽

White Children ◽

Cortical Surface Area ◽

American Children ◽

Parental Educational Attainment

Introduction: Although the effects of parental education and household income on children’s brain development are well established, less is known about possible variation in these effects across diverse racial and ethnic groups. According to the Minorities’ Diminished Returns (MDRs) phenomenon, due to structural racism, social stratification, and residential segregation, parental educational attainment and household income show weaker effects for non-White than White children. Purpose: Built on the MDRs framework and conceptualizing race as a social rather than a biological factor, this study explored racial and ethnic variation in the magnitude of the effects of parental education and household income on children’s whole-brain cortical surface area. Methods: For this cross-sectional study, we used baseline socioeconomic and structural magnetic resonance imaging (sMRI) data of the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. Our analytical sample was 10,262 American children between ages 9 and 10. The independent variables were parental education and household income. The primary outcome was the children’s whole-brain cortical surface area. Age, sex, and family marital status were covariates. Race and ethnicity were the moderators. We used mixed-effects regression models for data analysis as participants were nested within families and study sites. Results: High parental education and household income were associated with larger children’s whole-brain cortical surface area. The effects of high parental education and high household income on children’s whole-brain cortical surface area were modified by race. Compared to White children, Black children showed a diminished return of high parental education on the whole-brain cortical surface area when compared to White children. Asian American children showed weaker effects of household income on the whole-brain cortical surface area when compared to White children. We could not find differential associations between parental education and household income with the whole-brain cortical surface area, when compared to White children, for non-Hispanic and Hispanic children. Conclusions: The effects of parental educational attainment and household income on children’s whole-brain cortical surface area are weaker in non-White than White families. Although parental education and income contribute to children’s brain development, these effects are unequal across racial groups.

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Race, Family Conflict and Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors among 9–10-Year-Old American Children

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health ◽

10.3390/ijerph18105399 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 18 (10) ◽

pp. 5399

Author(s):

Shervin Assari ◽

Shanika Boyce ◽

Mohsen Bazargan ◽

Cleopatra H. Caldwell

Keyword(s):

Family Conflict ◽

Parental Education ◽

Black Children ◽

Outcome Variable ◽

Suicidal Thoughts ◽

White Children ◽

Black And White ◽

And Behaviors ◽

American Children ◽

Suicidal Thoughts And Behaviors

Family conflict is known to operate as a major risk factor for children’s suicidal thoughts and behaviors (STBs). However, it is unknown whether this effect is similar or different in Black and White children. Objectives: We compared Black and White children for the association between family conflict and STBs in a national sample of 9–10-year-old American children. Methods: This cross-sectional study used data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. This study included 9918 White or Black children between the ages of 9 and 10 living in married households. The predictor variable was family conflict. Race was the moderator. The outcome variable was STBs, treated as a count variable, reflecting positive STB items that were endorsed. Covariates included ethnicity, sex, age, immigration status, family structure, parental education, and parental employment, and household income. Poisson regression was used for data analysis. Results: Of all participants, 7751 were Whites, and 2167 were Blacks. In the pooled sample and in the absence of interaction terms, high family conflict was associated with higher STBs. A statistically significant association was found between Black race and family conflict, suggesting that the association between family conflict and STBs is stronger in Black than White children. Conclusion: The association between family conflict and STBs is stronger in Black than White children. Black children with family conflict may be at a higher risk of STBs than White children with the same family conflict level. These findings align with the literature on the more significant salience of social relations as determinants of mental health of Black than White people. Reducing family conflict should be regarded a significant element of suicide prevention for Black children in the US.

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Race, Ethnicity, Family Socioeconomic Status, and Children’s Hippocampus Volume

Research in Health Science ◽

10.22158/rhs.v5n4p25 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 5 (4) ◽

pp. p25

Author(s):

Shervin Assari

Keyword(s):

Socioeconomic Status ◽

Ethnic Group ◽

Parental Education ◽

Family Socioeconomic Status ◽

White Families ◽

Race Ethnicity ◽

American Children ◽

Using Data ◽

Hippocampus Volume ◽

Family Ses

Introduction: The hippocampus has a significant role in memory, learning, and cognition. Although hippocampal size is highly susceptible to family socioeconomic status (SES) and associated stress, very little is known on racial and ethnic group differences in the effects of SES indicators on hippocampus volume among American children. Purpose: This study explored the multiplicative effects of race, ethnicity, and family SES on hippocampus volume among American children. Methods: Using data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD), we analyzed the functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) data of 9390 9-10 years old children. The main outcome was hippocampus volume. The predictor was parental education. Subjective family SES was the independent variable. Age, sex, and marital status were the covariates. Racial and ethnic group membership were the moderators. To analyze the data, we used regression models. Results: High subjective family SES was associated with larger hippocampus volume. This effect was significantly larger for Whites than Black families. Conclusions: The effect of subjective family SES on children’s hippocampus volume is weaker in Black than White families.

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Diminished Association between Parental Education and Parahippocampal Cortical Thickness in Pre-Adolescents in the US

Studies in Social Science Research ◽

10.22158/sssr.v2n4p34 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 2 (4) ◽

pp. p34

Author(s):

Mona Darvishi ◽

Mohammed Saqib ◽

Shervin Assari

Keyword(s):

Racial Differences ◽

Cortical Thickness ◽

Household Income ◽

Parental Education ◽

National Sample ◽

Cross Sectional Study ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

The Us ◽

American Children ◽

The Right

Introduction: Socioeconomic status (SES) indicators, such as parental education and household income, are associated with the thickness of various cortical areas. However, less is known about the parahippocampal region. Additionally, more research is required regarding how the correlation between SES indicators and cortical thickness differs among diverse racial groups. Purpose: This study uses a national sample of pre-adolescents ages 9 to 10 years old in the US and was performed with two aims in mind. First, to investigate the correlations between two SES indicators, namely parental education and household income, and parahippocampal cortical thickness. Second, to explore racial differences in these associations. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, we used data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study to analyze the Structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging (sMRI) data of 9,849 US pre-adolescents between the ages of 9 and 10 years old. The main outcomes were parahippocampal cortical thickness separately calculated for the right and the left hemispheres using sMRI. The independent variables were parental education and household income, which were both treated as nominal variables. Age, sex, ethnicity, and family structure were the covariates, and race was the moderator. Mixed-effects regression models were used for data analysis with and without interaction terms. Results: High income positively associated with right and left parahippocampal cortical thickness in the fully adjusted models. Race showed a statistically significant interaction with parental education on children’s parahippocampal cortical thickness, suggesting that the correlations between parental education with the right and left parahippocampal cortical thickness were significantly larger for White than Black and other/mixed race pre-adolescents. No interaction was found for household income and race. Conclusions: The association between parental education and pre-adolescents parahippocampal cortical thickness may be weaker in Black than in White American children. Consistent with the findings of Marginalization-related Diminished Returns (MDRs), parental education shows weaker links for some brain indicators, such as parahippocampal cortical thickness, in Black and other racial and minority children when compared to White children.

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Parental Education, Household Income, Race, and Children’s Working Memory: Complexity of the Effects

Brain Sciences ◽

10.3390/brainsci10120950 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 10 (12) ◽

pp. 950

Author(s):

Golnoush Akhlaghipour ◽

Shervin Assari

Keyword(s):

Working Memory ◽

Household Income ◽

Parental Education ◽

Black Families ◽

Card Sorting ◽

Mixed Effect ◽

White Children ◽

Economic Implications ◽

Highly Educated ◽

American Children

Background. Considerable research has linked social determinants of health (SDoHs) such as race, parental education, and household income to school performance, and these effects may be in part due to working memory. However, a growing literature shows that these effects may be complex: while the effects of parental education may be diminished for Blacks than Whites, household income may explain such effects. Purpose. Considering race as sociological rather than a biological construct (race as a proxy of racism) and built on Minorities’ Diminished Returns (MDRs), this study explored complexities of the effects of SDoHs on children’s working memory. Methods. We borrowed data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. The total sample was 10,418, 9- and 10-year-old children. The independent variables were race, parental education, and household income. The primary outcome was working memory measured by the NIH Toolbox Card Sorting Test. Age, sex, ethnicity, and parental marital status were the covariates. To analyze the data, we used mixed-effect regression models. Results. High parental education and household income were associated with higher and Black race was associated with lower working memory. The association between high parental education but not household income was less pronounced for Black than White children. This differential effect of parental education on working memory was explained by household income. Conclusions. For American children, parental education generates unequal working memory, depending on race. This means parental education loses some of its expected effects for Black families. It also suggests that while White children with highly educated parents have the highest working memory, Black children report lower working memory, regardless of their parental education. This inequality is mainly because of differential income in highly educated White and Black families. This finding has significant public policy and economic implications and suggests we need to do far more than equalizing education to eliminate racial inequalities in children’s cognitive outcomes. While there is a need for multilevel policies that reduce the effect of racism and social stratification for middle-class Black families, equalizing income may have more returns than equalizing education.

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Dimensional Change Card Sorting of American Children: Marginalization-Related Diminished Returns of Age

Children and Teenagers ◽

10.22158/ct.v3n2p72 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 3 (2) ◽

pp. p72

Author(s):

Shervin Assari

Keyword(s):

Cognitive Development ◽

Cognitive Flexibility ◽

Social Stratification ◽

Dimensional Change ◽

Card Sorting ◽

White Children ◽

Card Sort ◽

Age Related ◽

American Children ◽

Dimensional Change Card Sort

Background: While age is associated with an increase in cognitive flexibility and executive functioning as a result of normal development during childhood, less is known about the effect of racial variation in children’s age-related cognitive development. The Marginalization-related Diminished Returns (MDRs) phenomenon suggests that, under racism, social stratification, segregation, and discrimination, individual-level economic and non-economic resources and assets show weaker effects on children’s development for marginalized, racialized, and minoritized families. Aim: We conducted this study to compare racial groups of children for age-related changes in their card sorting abilities. Methods: This cross-sectional study included 10,414 9-10-year-old American children. Data came from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. The independent variable was age, a continuous variable measured in months. The dependent variable was Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS) score, which reflected cognitive flexibility, and was measured by the NIH Dimensional Change Card Sort. Ethnicity, sex, parental education, and marital status were the covariates. Results: Older age was associated with higher DCCS score, reflecting a higher card-sorting ability and cognitive flexibility. However, age showed a weaker association with DCCS for Black than for White children. This was documented by a significantly negative interaction between race and age on children’s DCCS scores. Conclusion: Age shows a weaker correlation with the cognitive flexibility of Black than of White children. A similar pattern can be seen when comparing low-income with high-income children. Conceptualizing race as a social factor that alters normal childhood development is a finding that is in line with MDRs. Marginalization due to social stratification and racism interfere with the normal age-related cognitive development of American children.

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Perceptions of Caregiving: Racial Examinations of Resiliency and Stress

Innovation in Aging ◽

10.1093/geroni/igaa057.1133 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 4 (Supplement_1) ◽

pp. 352-352

Author(s):

Athena Koumoutzis ◽

Kelly Cichy

Keyword(s):

Racial Differences ◽

Daily Living ◽

Process Model ◽

Well Being ◽

Stress Process Model ◽

Parental Caregiving ◽

The Family ◽

Using Data ◽

Midlife Adults ◽

Emotional Strain

Abstract Adult children are at risk of emotional strain when parental caregiving needs emerge. Pearlin’s Stress Process Model (1990) and caregiver studies suggest minority caregivers report lower subjective caregiving burden, however, few studies simultaneously consider both the stresses and rewards of caregiving. Using data from Wave II of the Family Exchange Study (N = 243), we examine racial differences in midlife adults’ perceptions (i.e., stress and rewards) of assisting their parents with activities of daily living (ADLs) and the associations between perceptions of ADL assistance and emotional well-being among adults who help their parents with ADLs. Compared to non-minority caregivers (M = 4.18, SD = 0.91), minority caregivers (M = 4.45, SD = 0.84) found it more rewarding to help their mother (t(314) = -2.54, p < .05), whereas non-minority caregivers (M = 2.25, SD = .1.27) found it more stressful to help their father than did minority caregivers (M = 1.64, SD = 0.99), t(162) = 3.01, p < .01). After controlling for demographics and ADL needs, linear regression analyses revealed that the stress of helping parents predicted depression (F(6, 189) = 5.30, p < .001) and race moderated the association (p < .01); the association was only significant for minority caregivers (p < .05). Implications will be discussed.

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