Time Estimation: Effects of Cognitive Task, Presentation Rate, and Delay

1996 ◽  
Vol 83 (3_suppl) ◽  
pp. 1387-1394 ◽  
Author(s):  
William F. Vitulli ◽  
Heather A. Shepard
Keyword(s):  
Repeated Measures ◽  
Cognitive Task ◽  
Digit Span ◽  
Presentation Rate ◽  
Time Estimation ◽  
Stimulus Presentation ◽  
Subjective Time ◽  
Allocation Model ◽  
Mixed Analysis ◽  
Within Subjects

The variables of which subjective time is a function extend throughout a myriad of “people, places, and things.” This study measured subjective estimations of time as a function of complexity of cognitive task including arithmetic and recall (within subjects), the rate of stimulus (digit span) information (between subjects), and the delay between stimulus presentation and estimations of time (between subjects). A mixed analysis of variance 2 × 2 × 3 (repeated-measures) factorial design showed that retrospective time estimations were significantly different as a function of the main effects of rate of digit presentation and delay. Men and women showed no differences with no significant interactions so their data were pooled. Quotient values for ratios of delayed versus immediate estimates and slow versus fast rates showed overestimates of “real time.” Explanations based on the “storage-size model,” the “attention-allocation” model, and comparisons with Pedri and Hesketh's 1993 data are discussed.

Pacing and Hazard Score of Elite Open Water Swimmers During a 5-km Indoor Pool Race

2020 ◽  
pp. 1-6 ◽  
Author(s):  
Roberto Baldassarre ◽  
Cristian Ieno ◽  
Marco Bonifazi ◽  
Maria Francesca Piacentini
Keyword(s):  
Swimming Speed ◽  
Repeated Measures ◽  
Perceived Exertion ◽  
Open Water ◽  
Rating Of Perceived Exertion ◽  
Mixed Analysis ◽  
Pacing Strategies ◽  
Main Effect ◽  
Within Subjects ◽  
The Relationship

Purpose: The sensation of fatigue experienced at a certain point of the race is an important factor in the regulation of pacing. The rating of perceived exertion (RPE) is considered one of the main mediators utilized by athletes to modify pacing. The aim was to analyze the relationship between pacing and RPE of elite open water swimmers during national indoor pool championships. Methods: A total of 17 elite open water swimmers (males, n = 9; females, n = 8) agreed to provide RPE every 500 m during the finals of the national championships 5-km indoor pool race. Time splits, stroke rate, and RPE were collected every 500 m. The Hazard score was calculated by multiplying the momentary RPE by the remaining fraction of the race. Athletes were placed in one of two categories: medalists or nonmedalists. For all variables, separate mixed analysis of variances (P ≤ .05) with repeated measures were used considering the splits (ie, every 500 m) as within-subjects factor and the groups (ie, medalists and nonmedalists) as between-subjects factor. Results: Average swimming speed showed a significant main effect for split for both males and females (P < .001). A significant interaction was observed between average swimming speed and groups for females (P = .032). RPE increased in both groups (P < .001) with no difference observed between groups. However, the female nonmedalists showed a disproportionate nonlinear increase in RPE (5.20 [2.31]) halfway through the event that corresponded to the point where they started significantly decreasing speed. Conclusions: The results of the present study show different pacing strategies adopted by medalists and nonmedalists despite a similar RPE.

Measuring Perceived Task Difficulty Using Magnitude Estimation: A Demonstration and Replication

1994 ◽  
Vol 38 (4) ◽  
pp. 335-339
Author(s):  
Sabina Alteras-Webb ◽  
Debra K. Dekker
Keyword(s):  
Magnitude Estimation ◽  
Repeated Measures ◽  
Task Difficulty ◽  
Mental Workload ◽  
Data Entry ◽  
Presentation Rate ◽  
Stimulus Presentation ◽  
Work Load ◽  
Mental Work ◽  
Zip Code

The proliferation of sedentary, more cognitively demanding computer-mediated work, calls attention to the need for methods to measure mental work load. The present research describes two experiments in which participants performed a machine paced task of entering five and/or nine digit zip codes into a computer. The zip code data was presented on a computer screen for twelve four minute trials where the rate of zip code presentation varied from trial to trial. Using the psychophysical scaling method of magnitude estimation, participants made a judgment of task difficulty after each trial period. In Experiment 1, four females participated in a repeated measures within-subjects design performing each digit task condition for five consecutive days. In Experiment 2, a between-subjects design was adopted where 42 females performed either the five or the nine digit data-entry for only one testing session. Regression analyses using the independent variable of stimulus presentation rate and the dependent variable of judgments of perceived difficulty resulted in R2s of .90 or better for both digit conditions in both experiments. T-tests were conducted to see if different task parameters would affect difficulty judgments; these were statistically significant to the .001 level in both experiments. The results support the notion that magnitude estimation is a reliable method for scaling subjective perceptions of difficulty, which may be an important component of mental workload.

Immediate versus Remote Judgements: Delay of Response and Rate of Stimulus Presentation in Time Estimation

1998 ◽  
Vol 86 (1) ◽  
pp. 19-22 ◽  
Author(s):  
William F. Vitulli ◽  
Kathleen A. Crimmins
Keyword(s):  
Analysis Of Variance ◽  
Time Estimation ◽  
Stimulus Presentation ◽  
Factorial Analysis ◽  
Subjective Time ◽  
Target Interval ◽  
Time Intervals ◽  
Time Estimates ◽  
Verbal Estimation ◽  
Main Effects

A systematic replication of Vitulli and Shepard's 1996 study showed that a change in response requirements (verbal estimation) from circling time intervals on a scoring sheet in the older study to writing subjective time estimates in the present study did not alter the robust effects of a delay in retrospective judgement. A complete 2×2×2 factorial analysis of variance showed main effects for rate (fast versus slow) of stimulus (random digits, 1–5) presentation and delay of estimate (immediate versus remote), yet there were no interactions among rate, delay, or sex. The interpolation of “filler tasks” between the end of the target interval and subjective estimate of the duration of the target interval significantly increased perceived time compared to estimates made immediately after the target interval.

Effectiveness of Progressive Relaxation on Test Anxiety and Visual Perception

1988 ◽  
Vol 63 (2) ◽  
pp. 511-518 ◽  
Author(s):  
Barbara Schaer ◽  
Steve Isom
Keyword(s):  
Visual Perception ◽  
Test Anxiety ◽  
Repeated Measures ◽  
Progressive Relaxation ◽  
Analysis Of Covariance ◽  
Embedded Figures Test ◽  
Mixed Analysis ◽  
Embedded Figures ◽  
Within Subjects ◽  
And Control

Progressive relaxation as a modifier of self-reported test anxiety and cognitive visual perception in undergraduates was tested on 23 volunteers found susceptible to progressive relaxation as indicated by selected items from the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility. Subjects were randomly assigned to treatment and control groups. Pretreatment consisted of the Test Anxiety Inventory and the Hidden Figures Test. Posttreatment measures were the Test Anxiety Inventory and the Witkin's Group Embedded Figures Test. A mixed analysis of covariance for repeated measures with two levels of treatment (between subjects) and two levels of time (within subjects) showed a significant reduction in reported test-anxiety test-retest for all subjects but no significant effect on the Embedded Figures Test scores.

Discounting Time and Time Discounting: Subjective Time Perception and Intertemporal Preferences

2009 ◽  
Vol 46 (4) ◽  
pp. 543-556 ◽  
Author(s):  
Gal Zauberman ◽  
B. Kyu Kim ◽  
Selin A. Malkoc ◽  
James R. Bettman
Keyword(s):  
Time Perception ◽  
Hyperbolic Discounting ◽  
Subjective Time ◽  
Multiple Time ◽  
Subjective Perceptions ◽  
Objective Time ◽  
Trade Offs ◽  
Intertemporal Preferences ◽  
Constant Rate ◽  
Within Subjects

Consumers often make decisions about outcomes and events that occur over time. This research examines consumers' sensitivity to the prospective duration relevant to their decisions and the implications of such sensitivity for intertemporal trade-offs, especially the degree of present bias (i.e., hyperbolic discounting). The authors show that participants' subjective perceptions of prospective duration are not sufficiently sensitive to changes in objective duration and are nonlinear and concave in objective time, consistent with psychophysical principles. More important, this lack of sensitivity can explain hyperbolic discounting. The results replicate standard hyperbolic discounting effects with respect to objective time but show a relatively constant rate of discounting with respect to subjective time perceptions. The results are replicated between subjects (Experiment 1) and within subjects (Experiments 2), with multiple time horizons and multiple descriptors, and with different measurement orders. Furthermore, the authors show that when duration is primed, subjective time perception is altered (Experiment 4) and hyperbolic discounting is reduced (Experiment 3).

The Effects of Superficial Heating before 1-MHz Ultrasound on Tissue Temperature

2003 ◽  
Vol 12 (2) ◽  
pp. 95-103 ◽  
Author(s):  
William R. Holcomb ◽  
Chris Blank
Keyword(s):  
Athletic Training ◽  
Repeated Measures ◽  
Outcome Measure ◽  
Tissue Temperature ◽  
Temperature Elevation ◽  
Main Outcome Measure ◽  
Cooling Period ◽  
Dependent Variables ◽  
Within Subjects ◽  
Independent Variable

Context:Ultrasound significantly raises tissue temperature, but the time of temperature elevation is short.Objective:To assess the effectiveness of superficial preheating on temperature elevation and decline when using ultrasound.Design:Within-subjects design to test the independent variable, treatment condition; repeated-measures ANOVAs to analyze the dependent variables, temperature elevation and decline.Setting:Athletic training laboratory.Intervention:Temperature at a depth of 3.75 cm was measured during ultrasound after superficial heating and with ultrasound alone.Subjects:10 healthy men.Main Outcome Measure:Temperature was recorded every 30 s during 15 min of ultrasound and for 15 min afterward.Results:Temperature elevation with ultrasound was significantly greater with preheating (4.0 ± 0.21 °C) than with ultrasound alone (3.0 ± 0.22 °C). Temperature decline was not significantly different between preheating and ultrasound alone.Conclusions:Superficial preheating significantly increases temperature elevation but has no effect on temperature decline during a 15-min cooling period.

Object, Intensity and Subject Variables in Visual Evoked Response

1976 ◽  
Vol 43 (2) ◽  
pp. 532-534 ◽  
Author(s):  
James C. Norton
Keyword(s):  
Repeated Measures ◽  
Research Strategy ◽  
Intensity Analysis ◽  
Considerable Variability ◽  
Variable Stimulus ◽  
Visual Evoked Response ◽  
Independent Variables ◽  
Object Effect ◽  
Within Subjects ◽  
Subject Variables

10 subjects were studied to determine AEP effects of square, circle, and blank stimuli with variable stimulus intensity For the group as a whole, object and intensity effects were significant on a number of amplitude and latency measures, but the object effect appears largely to reflect the presence or absence of a figure, rather than its nature. Increased intensity differentially affected latency, shortening the first negative deflection while lengthening the second positive. Amplitude is generally increased with higher intensity. Analysis of within-subjects effects showed considerable variability as to which parameters were significantly related to the independent variables in individual subjects. A repeated-measures, within-subjects research strategy is seen as appropriate on the basis of these data.

Anticipated Reward and Time Estimation in Young Navajo Children

1978 ◽  
Vol 47 (3) ◽  
pp. 1011-1014 ◽  
Author(s):  
Norman G. Dinges ◽  
Gwen Tollefson ◽  
George A. Parks ◽  
Albert R. Hollenbeck
Keyword(s):  
Repeated Measures ◽  
Time Estimation ◽  
Motivating Factors ◽  
Repeated Measures Design

Time estimations of 1-min. intervals using the method of reproduction by 112 Navajo children were measured under neutral and reward conditions in a repeated-measures design. Anticipated reward (a piece of candy) significantly reduced the accuracy of time estimations. In contrast to previous research the girls were more accurate than the boys; however, the effect of reward was more pronounced for girls than for boys. These data suggest that motivating factors play an important role in the reproduction of time by Navajo children.

Pairs of Latin Squares to Counterbalance Sequential Effects and Pairing of Conditions and Stimuli

1989 ◽  
Vol 33 (18) ◽  
pp. 1223-1227 ◽  
Author(s):  
James R. Lewis
Keyword(s):  
Human Factors ◽  
Repeated Measures ◽  
Random Sequence ◽  
Latin Square ◽  
Latin Squares ◽  
Sequential Effects ◽  
Long Run ◽  
Within Subjects ◽  
Human Factors Research

This paper discusses methods with which one can simultaneously counterbalance immediate sequential effects and pairing of conditions and stimuli in a within-subjects design using pairs of Latin squares. Within-subjects (repeated measures) experiments are common in human factors research. The designer of such an experiment must develop a scheme to ensure that the conditions and stimuli are not confounded, or randomly order stimuli and conditions. While randomization ensures balance in the long run, it is possible that a specific random sequence may not be acceptable. An alternative to randomization is to use Latin squares. The usual Latin square design ensures that each condition appears an equal number of times in each column of the square. Latin squares have been described which have the effect of counterbalancing immediate sequential effects. The objective of this work was to extend these earlier efforts by developing procedures for designing pairs of Latin squares which ensure complete counterbalancing of immediate sequential effects for both conditions and stimuli, and also ensure that conditions and stimuli are paired in the squares an equal number of times.

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