scholarly journals La sentenza della Corte di giustizia dell’Unione europea del 18 ottobre 2011 e la nozione di embrione in senso ampio

2011 ◽  
Vol 60 (5) ◽  
Author(s):  
Carlo Casini ◽  
Marina Casini ◽  
Antonio G. Spagnolo

L’articolo esamina la sentenza n° C-34/10 (caso Oliver Brüstle vs Greenpeace e V) del 18 ottobre 2011, emanata dalla Corte Europea di Giustizia, evidenziandone l’importanza, i limiti e le auspicabili implicazioni. Oggetto della sentenza sono tre questioni interpretative relative all’art. 6 della Direttiva sulla protezione giuridica delle invenzioni biotecnologiche. Tra queste, la principale riguarda la nozione di embrione umano. “Costituisce un embrione umano – affermano i giudici – qualunque ovulo umano fin dalla fecondazione, qualunque ovulo umano non fecondato in cui sia impiantato il nucleo di una cellula umana matura e qualunque ovulo umano non fecondato che, attraverso partenogenesi, sia indotto a dividersi e a svilupparsi”. Di conseguenza non possono essere concessi brevetti a procedure che utilizzino embrioni umani o che, comunque, ne presuppongano la preventiva distruzione. Il contesto della sentenza riguarda, appunto, la materia dei brevetti e come si legge al punto 31 della sentenza “la portata dei termini per i quali il diritto dell’Unione non fornisce alcuna definizione va operata tenendo conto del contesto in cui essi sono utilizzati e degli scopi perseguiti dalla normativa di cui fanno parte”. Nonostante il chiaro limite, la sentenza ha una sua positività che va oltre l’ambito brevettuale. I motivi della non brevettabilità consistono in un giudizio etico che non può essere ignorato anche al di fuori del campo brevettuale. La riflessione si estende anche all’ambito dei programmi di ricerca europei, dove coerenza vorrebbe che gli incentivi economici non fossero assegnati per la ricerca che implica la distruzione di embrioni umani e investe anche la comunità scientifica spingendo verso le ben più promettenti ricerche su cellule staminali adulte. Non dimentichiamo, infine, dopo l’entrata in vigore del Trattato di Lisbona, l’influenza che la giurisprudenza della Corte di giustizia europea di Lussemburgo potrebbe avere sulla giurisprudenza della Corte europea dei diritti dell’uomo di Strasburgo, meno incline – al momento – a riconoscere un concetto di embrione in senso ampio. ---------- The article deals with the European Court of Justice’s decision on October 18th 2011 (C-34/10, Brüstle vs Greepeace e. V.) and it shows importance, limits and desirable consequences of it. Three explanatory issues regarding the article no. 6 of the directive on the legal protection of biothecnological inventions are object of this decision. The most important among them concerns with the notion of human embryo. The Court states that: “any human ovum after fertilization, any non-fertilized human ovum into which the cell has been transplanted and any non-fertilized human ovum whose division and further development have been stimulated by parthenogenesis, constitute a human embryo”. Therefore, procedures using human embryos or which implies the destruction of human embryos are not patentable. The contest of the decision concerns exactly patent field and the point no. 31 states: “It must be borne in mind, further, that the meaning and scope of terms for which European Union law provides no definition must be determined by considering, inter alia, the contest in which they occur and the purposes of the rules of which they form part”. Despite of this clear limit, the decision is positive beyond patent matter. The ethical judgment could not be ignored outside patent field, involving the European research programs too: economic incentives should not be allocated for those researches that destroy human embryos. On the other hand, research on adult human stem cells should be implemented. Finally, after the Treaty of Lisbon, we should consider the possible influence on the European Court of Human Rights.

2020 ◽  
Vol 16 (2) ◽  
pp. 69-80
Author(s):  
Анастасия Пестрикова

At the present stage of the development of genetic engineering, the question is raised about the legal status of a human embryo in connection with the commercialization and patenting of parthenogenetic embryonic stem cells. Aim: the article considers the main directions of developing criteria for distinguishing between cellular substances included in the definition of a human embryo, taking into account the latest achievements in the field of genetic engineering and judicial practice of the European Union. Methods: the author uses a comparative analysis of the main scientific achievements in the field of genetic engineering and emerging international practice of legal research in this field. Results: the author proves the importance of distinguishing between the definition of the concept of an embryo in terms of biology and genetics, and the consolidation of legal status and the need for legal protection, in order to avoid abuse of law and evasion of law in the commercial use of human stem cells and human embryos.


2012 ◽  
Vol 3 (1) ◽  
pp. 130-134
Author(s):  
Clara Sattler de Sousa e Brito

Case C-34/10 Brüstle v. Greenpeace1.Article 6(2)(c) of Directive 98/44/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 July 1998 on the legal protection of biotechnological inventions must be interpreted as meaning that:–any human ovum after fertilisation, any non-fertilised human ovum into which the cell nucleus from a mature human cell has been transplanted, and any non-fertilised human ovum whose division and further development have been stimulated by parthenogenesis constitute a ‘human embryo’;–it is for the referring court to ascertain, in the light of scientific developments, whether a stem cell obtained from a human embryo at the blastocyst stage constitutes a ‘human embryo’ within the meaning of Article 6(2)(c) of Directive 98/44.2.The exclusion from patentability concerning the use of human embryos for industrial or commercial purposes set out in Article 6(2)(c) of Directive 98/44 also covers the use of human embryos for purposes of scientific research, only use for therapeutic or diagnostic purposes which is applied to the human embryo and is useful to it being patentable.3.Article 6(2)(c) of Directive 98/44 excludes an invention from patentability where the technical teaching which is the subject-matter of the patent application requires the prior destruction of human embryos or their use as base material, whatever the stage at which that takes place and even if the description of the technical teaching claimed does not refer to the use of human embryos.


2018 ◽  
Vol 66 (6) ◽  
pp. 735-745
Author(s):  
Carlo Casini ◽  
Marina Casini

Il contributo si sofferma sulla questione riguardante la ricerca scientifica sugli embrioni generati in vitro. L’articolo 18 della Convenzione riguarda specificamente la sperimentazione sull’embrione in vitro e per questo esso è sottoposto ad una riflessione particolarmente approfondita. L’obiettivo è quello di capire se dalla Convenzione emergono linee idonee a definire lo statuto giuridico dell’embrione umano. Gli Autori concludono nel senso che nonostante il concetto di pre-embrione (formulato proprio per teorizzare l’insignificanza dell’embrione umano nei primi 14 giorni dalla fecondazione) sia stato accolto in alcune leggi e abbia implicitamente guidato l’interpretazione di alcuni aspetti relativi alla valutazione del valore dell’embrione, la Convenzione di bioetica lo ha definitivamente respinto con il massimo di autorevolezza. La conclusione è raggiunta attraverso l’esame dell’art. 18 considerandone anche la precedente formulazione contenuta in una bozza; mediante una interpretazione sistematica della Convenzione che esige il riconoscimento del concepito, fin dalla fecondazione, come un “essere umano”; esaminando i contributi preparatori elaborati dalla Assemblea Parlamentare del Consiglio d’Europa e del Parlamento Europeo; prendendo in considerazione gli sviluppi della Convenzione di Oviedo con specifico riferimento al tema del pre-embrione. L’indagine si avvale poi anche di ampi riferimenti alla giurisprudenza della Corte europea dei diritti dell’uomo del Consiglio d’Europa, alla giurisprudenza della Corte di Giustizia dell’Unione Europea, ad alcune recenti decisioni della Corte Costituzionale italiana. ---------- The paper focuses on the question concerning scientific research on human embryos generated in vitro. Article 18 of the Oviedo Convention specifically concerns the experimentation on the in vitro embryos and for this reason it is subject to a particularly in-depth reflection. The goal is to understand if the Convention shows suitable lines to define the legal status of the human embryo. The authors conclude that despite the concept of pre-embryo (formulated to theorize the insignificance of the human embryo in the first 14 days of fertilization) has been accepted in some laws and has implicitly guided the interpretation of some aspects related to the evaluation of the value of the embryo, the Bioethics Convention definitively rejected it with the utmost authority. The conclusion is reached through the examination of the art. 18 also considering the previous formulation contained in a draft; through a systematic interpretation of the Convention which requires the recognition of the conceived, from the moment of fertilization, as a “human being”; examining the preparatory contributions prepared by the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe and the European Parliament; taking into consideration the developments of the Oviedo Convention with specific reference to the theme of the pre-embryo. The investigation also makes use of extensive references to the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights of the Council of Europe, to the jurisprudence of the Court of Justice of the European Union, to some recent decisions of the Italian Constitutional Court.


2021 ◽  
pp. 1-23
Author(s):  
Gianluca Montanari Vergallo

Abstract The paper addresses the issues of admissibility of human embryo research and the legal protection to be recognized, in light of the growing importance that scientific research has been gaining in the clinical and biomedical fields of embryonic stem cells for therapeutic purposes. As for human embryo experimentation, particularly on cryopreserved supernumerary embryos, European legislation varies, since the European Court has granted member States a wide margin of appreciation. Some countries, including Italy, have strict legislation protecting embryos from the fertilisation stage, whereas others have taken permissive approaches, allowing experimentation until 14 days after fertilisation. Science, however, has shown that the 14-day limit can be moved. The author finds it necessary to achieve broad international consensus and shared regulations. Lawmakers, however, need to balance respect for the principle of life, represented by the embryo, against scientific needs, in order to devise sound regulations safeguarding both apparently conflicting fundamental values.


2013 ◽  
Vol 62 (6) ◽  
Author(s):  
Carlo Casini ◽  
Marina Casini

Il recente ricorso alla Corte europea dei diritti dell’uomo (n. n. 46470/11) nasce dalla pretesa di usare gli embrioni umani per la ricerca scientifica sul presupposto che si tratti di “cose”. Infatti, la ricorrente invoca il suo diritto di proprietà sugli embrioni appellandosi all’art. 1 del Protocollo n. 1 addizionale alla Convenzione Europea per la salvaguardia dei diritti e delle libertà fondamentali. L’attacco è diretto contro la legge italiana sulla procreazione medicalmente assistita (Legge 40 del 19 febbraio 2004) il cui art. 13/1 vieta “qualsiasi sperimentazione su ciascun embrione umano”. Gli Autori, ritengono che sia infondata scientificamente e giuridicamente la pretesa di considerare l’embrione umano una cosa; mostrano come il riconoscimento del il concepito soggetto titolare di diritti (art.1), sia supportato da un importante complesso normativo; contestano la pretesa contraddizione tra la Legge 40 del 2004 con la legge 194 del 1978; sostengono la ragionevolezza scientifica, etica e giuridica di orientare la scienza verso la ricerca sulle staminali adulte, anziché su quelle embrionali. L’indagine viene condotta passando in rassegna numerose disposizioni a partire dall’art. 18 della Convenzione di Oviedo. Ampio spazio è dato alla giurisprudenza della Corte europea dei diritti dell’uomo in materia di bioetica in relazione alla dottrina del margine di apprezzamento che dovrebbe essere applicata anche in senso favorevole all’Italia nel caso in esame. Il contributo auspica che i giudici tengano conto di quanto scritto nell’articolo 2 del Trattato di Oviedo che sotto il titolo “Primato dell’essere umano”, dichiara “l’interesse ed il bene dell’essere umano devono prevalere sul solo interesse della società e della scienza”. ---------- The recent appeal to the European Court of Human Rights (Application n. 46470/11) originates from the demand to use human embryos for scientific research on the ground that they are “things”. Indeed the appellant claims her right to property of the embryos pleading to the art. 1 of the Additional Protocol n. 1 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. The attack is directed against the Italian Law on medically assisted procreation (Law n. 40 of 19 February 2004) which bans any experimentation on human embryo. The Authors argue that the demanded evaluation of the human embryo as a “thing” is scientifically and legally baseless. They also show how the Italian Law n. 40/2004, which recognizes the embryo as a subject holder of rights (art.1), is backed by an important normative complex. In this article the thesis on the inconsistency between Law n. 40/2004 and Law n. 194/178 is rejected and it is claimed the scientific, ethical and legal reasonableness to lead the science to adult stem cells instead embryonic stem cells. The analysis is conducted reviewing numerous dispositions from art. 18 of the Oviedo Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine. In this article a wide space is allowed to the Bioethics case-law of the European Court of Human Rights as for the doctrine of the margin of appreciation which should be applied also to defend Italy in the examined case. The article hope that the Court set great store by what is written in art. 2 (“Primacy of the Human Being”): “The interests and welfare of the human being shall prevail over the sole interest of society or science”.


2016 ◽  
Vol 22 (2) ◽  
pp. 292-297
Author(s):  
Gabriela Belova ◽  
Anna Hristova

Abstract The following article is dedicated to the topic of human dignity - the human embryos and the legal framework they are regulated by in the EU: The Charter of Fundamental Rights of European Union and the EU Court practice. For the purpose, the authors look first and foremost at the EU Directive 98/44, regulating the legal protection of biotechnological inventions which aim at balancing the human beings' dignity and integrity with the need to preserve the social function of patents as a vector for the competiveness of the European biotech industry. Two key EU Court cases are analyzed, both of which reflecting the evolution of the Court of Justice on the European Union's Case Law on Stem Cell Patents, namely Case C-34/10 Oliver Brüstle v Greenpeace е. V. and Case C-364/13 International Stem Cell Corporation. The article looks then at the European Citizens’ Initiative “One of us”, which aims at securing Juridical protection of the dignity, the right to life, as well as to the integrity of every human being from conception in those areas of EU competence where such protection has a particular importance.


Lex Russica ◽  
2019 ◽  
pp. 37-47
Author(s):  
O. Yu. Fomina

Genetic technologies are rapidly developing, which is not the case for the normative consolidation of scientific achievements and opportunities. The science aimed at improving the quality of life of people is already able to prevent many hereditary disorders by removing the «wrong» gene from the embryo DNA. Editing the human genome is not the future, but the present.It is assumed that legalization in the area of the human genome editing for preventive or therapeutic purposes is more than possible. The article analyzes the issues of the right to go to court on the ground of legal relations that arise when the human embryo genome is edited during the procedure of in-vitro fertilization (IVF) and subsequently a «genetically modified» child is born.Due to the lack of detailed legal regulation of the IVF procedure, scientific research on human embryos and genome editing technology, the author does not exclude situations when successful research can be carried out as well as errors can be committed. In the latter case, it is possible to work upon «healthy» DNA elements instead of or together with «sick» elements, which endangers the life and health of not only the potential person, but also his discendants.Given that the current legislation does not determine the status of a human embryo and establishes the moment of birth as the moment of capacity, while the civil procedural capacity (that is one of the prerequisites for the right to go to a court) of an individual coincides with civil legal capacity, the future human life is deprived of any legal protection. For the same reason, other persons may not go to court in the interests of the unborn child. The article attempts to find a way out of this situation by analyzing Russian and international legislation, as well as the ECHR case law.


2015 ◽  
Vol 16 (5) ◽  
pp. 1073-1098 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mattias Derlén ◽  
Johan Lindholm

AbstractThe case law of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) is one of the most important sources of European Union law. However, case law's role in EU law is not uniform. By empirically studying how the Court uses its own case law as a source of law, we explore the correlation between, on the one hand, the characteristics of a CJEU case—type of action, actors involved, and area of law—and, on the other hand, the judgment's “embeddedness” in previous case law and value as a precedent in subsequent cases. Using this approach, we test, confirm, and debunk existing scholarship concerning the role of CJEU case law as a source of EU law. We offer the following conclusions: that CJEU case law cannot be treated as a single entity; that only a limited number of factors reliably affect a judgment's persuasive or precedential power; that the Court's use of its own case law as a source of law is particularly limited in successful infringement proceedings; that case law is particularly important in preliminary references—especially those concerning fundamental freedoms and competition law; and that initiating Member State and the number of observations affects the behavior of the Court.


2009 ◽  
Vol 38 (3) ◽  
pp. 268-294
Author(s):  
Stuart Wallace

This paper analyses the legal protection of the journalist–source relationship from both sides and the underlying interests involved. The paper begins by analysing why the relationship deserves protection. The position of journalists at common law is analysed with a discussion of the application of the principle established in Norwich Pharmacal v Customs and Excise to journalists. The development of immunity from contempt in s. 10 of the Contempt of Court Act 1981 is examined to illustrate the ideological clash between the judiciary and journalists. The impact of the Human Rights Act and decisions of the European Court of Human Rights are analysed to assess whether this will lead to a change in attitudes in the UK. Finally, the potential threat to journalists posed by compelled evidentiary disclosure in criminal cases is reviewed, with a particular look at ‘special procedure’ material. The US section begins with an analysis of the law at federal level, the decisions of the Supreme Court, including the leading decision of Branzburg v Hayes, as well as the role the legislature has played. The paper then analyses protections provided at state level, with a case study of the California shield law and a review of Californian jurisprudence.


2021 ◽  
Vol 13 (7) ◽  
pp. 3985
Author(s):  
Adam Kozień

The concept of sustainable development is widely used, especially in social, environmental and economic aspects. The principle of sustainable development was derived from the concept of sustainable development, which appears in legal terms at the international, EU, national and local levels. Today, the value of cultural heritage that should be legally protected is indicated. A problematic issue may be the clash in this respect of the public interest related to the protection of heritage with the individual interest, expressed, e.g., in the ownership of cultural heritage designates. During the research, scientific methods that are used in legal sciences were used: theoretical–legal, formal–dogmatic, historical–legal methods, as well as the method of criticism of the literature, and legal inferences were also used. The analyses were carried out on the basis of the interdisciplinary literature on the subject, as well as international, EU and national legal acts—sources of the generally applicable law. Research has shown that the interdisciplinary principle of sustainable development, especially from the perspective of the social and auxiliary environmental aspect, may be the basis for weighing public and individual interests in the area of legal protection of cultural heritage in the European Union. It was also indicated that it is possible in the situation of treating the principle of sustainable development in terms of Dworkin’s “policies” and allows its application not only at the level of European Union law (primary and secondary), but also at the national legal orders of the European Union Member States.


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