THE EFFECT OF CONCENTRATE TO HAY RATIO AND OTHER RATION FACTORS ON THE FEEDLOT PERFORMANCE OF BEEF CATTLE

1957 ◽  
Vol 37 (1) ◽  
pp. 50-57 ◽  
Author(s):  
Frank Whiting
Keyword(s):  
Body Weight ◽  
Feed Efficiency ◽  
Carcass Characteristics ◽  
Feed Utilization ◽  
The Body ◽  
Daily Consumption ◽  
Feedlot Performance ◽  
Ad Libitum ◽  
Dressing Percentage ◽  
Made In

Two experiments were carried out with Hereford and Aberdeen Angus steer calves to study the influence of feeding concentrate and hay in the ratios of 1:2, 1:1, 2:1; of feeding the concentrate in the pelleted and the ground form; of pelleting the entire ration; and of feeding the ration ad libitum and according to the body weight of the animal. All comparisons were not made in each experiment. Each lot in each experiment was made up of four Aberdeen Angus and seven Hereford calves. All animals were fed individually. Only the data obtained between 500 and 900 lb. body weight were considered in this paper. The animals were slaughtered as they reached 900 lb. and certain carcass data obtained.The steers fed concentrate to hay in the ratio of 1:2 made smaller daily gains, required more feed (T.D.N.) per unit of gain, had lower dressing percentages, and had less fat in their 9-10-11 rib sections than those fed rations with ratios of concentrate to hay of 1:1 and 2:1. The steers fed the 1:1 ratio made significantly smaller daily gains and required more feed per unit of gain than those fed the 2:1 ratio of concentrate to hay, but were not different in dressing percentage or percentage fat in the 9-10-11 rib sections.There were no significant differences between those steers fed their concentrate in the pelleted or ground forms. In one experiment, pelleting the entire ration resulted in significantly lower daily gains than pelleting only the concentrate and feeding the hay chopped, but in the other experiment there were no differences. Pelleting the entire ration resulted in no significant differences in feed efficiency, dressing percentage, or carcass grade. Limiting the daily consumption of feed to predetermined amounts dependent upon body weight did not influence efficiency of feed utilization or carcass characteristics as compared to ad libitum feeding.The Hereford steers that were fed in these two experiments made greater body gains per unit of feed consumed but had less body fat and in one experiment had lower grading carcasses than the Aberdeen Angus steers.

scholarly journals Effects of various ractopamine hydrochloride withdrawal periods on performance, health, and carcass characteristics in yearling steers

2019 ◽  
Vol 4 (1) ◽  
pp. 67-74
Author(s):  
Tony C Bryant ◽  
Josh I Szasz ◽  
Lois F G Pringle ◽  
Eddie Crispe ◽  
K Shawn Blood ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Feed Efficiency ◽  
Dry Matter ◽  
Block Design ◽  
Average Daily Gain ◽  
Carcass Characteristics ◽  
Average Dose ◽  
Withdrawal Period ◽  
Feedlot Performance ◽  
Dressing Percentage ◽  
Ractopamine Hydrochloride

Abstract Ractopamine hydrochloride (RAC) is a β-adrenergic agonist approved for feeding during the last 28 to 42 d prior to cattle slaughter to improve feedlot performance and carcass characteristics. Three thousand crossbred yearling steers (527 ± 2.4 kg; AVG ± SD) were used in two periods to evaluate the effects of various RAC withdrawal times on feedlot performance, health, and carcass characteristics. In Period 1, 6 blocks of 30 pens totaling 1,500 steers were utilized, which was repeated for Period 2. In a randomized complete block design, cattle were assigned to 1 of 5 treatments consisting of 1) No RAC fed (CON), 2) 12-h RAC withdrawal (12-hRAC), 3) 2-d RAC withdrawal (2-dRAC), 4) 4-d RAC withdrawal (4-dRAC), and 5) 7-d RAC withdrawal (7-dRAC). Cattle were fed for a total of 62 d, and applicable treatments were supplemented with 30.0 ppm (dry matter basis) of RAC (average dose = 322 mg per steer per day) for 33 d at the end of the feeding period, corresponding to their respective withdrawal times. Initial body weight (BW) displayed a quadratic curve, with 2-dRAC and 4-dRAC withdrawal periods having the greatest BW. Accordingly, dry matter intake (DMI) responded quadratically (P = 0.034), with 2-dRAC and 4-dRAC treatments demonstrating the greatest DMI. No significant treatment differences (P ≥ 0.641) were observed in final live BW, average daily gain (ADG), or feed efficiency. Alternatively, when using a common dressing percentage to calculate live BW, cattle on RAC treatments exhibited 7.6 kg additional live BW (P < 0.001) compared to CON cattle. Furthermore, carcass-adjusted ADG and feed efficiency did not differ (P > 0.10) between RAC treatments but were improved compared to the CON treatment (P ≤ 0.002). Hot carcass weight (HCW) was on average 4.9 kg greater (P < 0.001) for RAC treatments vs. CON, and no differences were detected (P > 0.10) among RAC treatments. Within RAC treatments, carcass cutability responded quadratically (P ≤ 0.005) to withdrawal period, with the 2-dRAC and 4-dRAC treatments containing more Yield Grade 4 and 5 and fewer Yield Grade 1 and 2 carcasses than the other RAC treatments. On the basis of the results of this experiment, feeding RAC improves dressing percentage, HCW, and carcass-adjusted BW, ADG, and feed efficiency. Furthermore, extending the RAC withdrawal period to 7 d does not have a significant impact on cattle performance or health and has minimal effects on carcass characteristics.

scholarly journals OBSERVATIONS ON THE COMPARATIVE GROWTH PERFORMANCE OF NIGHT FED AND NIGHT FASTED BROILER FINISHERS

2021 ◽  
Vol 21 ◽  
pp. 113-118
Author(s):  
E. A. O. Laseinde ◽  
F. A. Igbasan
Keyword(s):  
Body Weight ◽  
Weight Gain ◽  
Management Practices ◽  
Body Weight Gain ◽  
Feed Utilization ◽  
The Body ◽  
Night Feeding ◽  
Significant Difference ◽  
Ad Libitum ◽  
Better Than

Four-week old broiler finishers were raised in 8 deep litter pens under two treatments, night feeding and night fasting. The birds were fed ad libitum during the day and equally exposed to all necessary management practices. The trial was conducted to observe the comparative body weight gain (BWG), feed intake (F.1) and feed utilization (F.U) between the birds under the two treatments, as well as the body weight shrinkage arising from the night fasting by the night fasted birds. There was no significant difference (P>0.05) in BWG between birds in the two treatments except at week 5. An equivalent of 62% of the day time BWG was lost to fasting by the night fasted birds. The loss was, however, adequately compensated during the day time feeding. Body weight shrinkage due to the night fast increased with age and was most pronounced between 9 -10 weeks of age. No significant difference (P>0.05) was observed in F.1. between the night fed and night fasted birds. For the former, F.I. was higher during the day from ages 5 to 8 weeks and higher during the night at ages 9 and 10 weeks. night fasted birds utilised feed averagely better than the night fed ones. Results from this study show that there is no significant advantage in feeding broiler finishers at night.

scholarly journals SEASONAL AND ANNUAL VARIATIONS IN BODY WEIGHT AND CARCASS CHARACTERISTICS OF CATTLE IN THE SUDAN SAVANNA ZONE OF NIGERIA

2021 ◽  
Vol 24 (2) ◽  
pp. 180-187
Author(s):  
S. O. Alaku
Keyword(s):  
Body Weight ◽  
Carcass Characteristics ◽  
Dry Season ◽  
The Body ◽  
Annual Variations ◽  
Annual Basis ◽  
Hot Dry Season ◽  
Dressing Percentage ◽  
Retail Cuts ◽  
Sudan Savanna

Records kept by the Bauchi Meat Company, on 2,264 cattle slaughtered for meat, form 1982, were analysed to study the influence of season and year on the weight of the body, carcass, bone, wholesale and retail cuts, and dressing percentage. Bothe season and year showed significant (P < 0.01) influence on triats measured. Body weight was lowest during the rains (345.39 ± 3.00kg) increasing steadily thereafter to attain its highest peak (397.87 ± 3.30kg) in the hot-dry season. Body weight were similar in 1982 (370.63 ± 3.91kg) and 1984 (365.24 ± 2.39kg) but superior (P < 0.01) to that of 1983 (357.63 ± 2.61kg) Warm carcass weight was highest in the hot-dry season (217.11 ± 2.05kg) and lowest in the cod-dry season (181.64 ± 1.96kg). The annual values were similar for 1982 and 1984 but superior (P < 0.01) to that of 1983 (183.80 ± 1.43kg). The wholesale and retail cuts were heaviest in the hot-dry season. The dressing percentage was highest in the rainy season (56.13 ± 0.12%) and lowest (49.81 ± 0.21%) in the cold-dry season (P < 0.01). On annual basis carcasses dressed best in 1984. (55.26 ± 0.07%) and least (53.17 ± 0.12) in 1982. Studies such as this conducted through many season, years and even decades are valuable in functional planning.

scholarly journals Growth, Efficiency of Feed Utilization and Economics of Different Rearing Periods of Turkeys Mukesh Karki

1970 ◽  
Vol 6 ◽  
pp. 84-88
Author(s):  
Mukesh Karki
Keyword(s):  
Body Weight ◽  
Feed Efficiency ◽  
Fish Meal ◽  
Agricultural Research ◽  
Growth Efficiency ◽  
Feed Utilization ◽  
The Body ◽  
Feed Consumption ◽  
Research Station ◽  
Research Journal

The present study on body weight and feed efficiency for growth was carried out on 112 turkeypoults from day of hatch to 28 weeks of age during May to November 2002 at Poultry ResearchUnit of Regional Agricultural Research Station (RARS)-Parwanipur. Layer starter rationsupplemented with 6% fish meal + 0.3% lysine + 0.125% methonine was fed up to 8 weeks ofage, then after layer finisher diet was fed. The body weight, feed consumption was observed at 4weekly interval and feed efficiency and economics of rearing period in terms of income overfeed and poults cost was calculated. Significant increase in body weight was recorded up to 28weeks in male and 20 weeks in female. Male turkey had significantly higher body weight thanthat of female in all ages. Feed efficiency is best at earlier age but up to 16 weeks it is 3.77 formale after that it detoriates progressively. Male turkey exhibited better feed efficiency than thatof female for all weeks. Significantly higher return per bird was obtained from male than that offemale in all age. The profit per bird for both male and female was found maximum in 16 weeksof rearing, followed by 20 weeks and 24 weeks. Therefore, instead of waiting for highest bodyweight, it is better to sell turkey at 16 to 20 weeks of age to take maximum advantage of higherweight gain, higher efficiency of feed utilization and higher profit.Key words: Economics; feed utilization; growth; rearing period; turkeyDOI: 10.3126/narj.v6i0.3369Nepal Agriculture Research Journal Vol.6 2005 pp.84-88

Effects of feed restriction during the laying period on the performance of two strains of mature caged commercial layers in the humid tropics

1981 ◽  
Vol 96 (1) ◽  
pp. 195-203 ◽  
Author(s):  
K. Benyi ◽  
O. Akinokun ◽  
S. H. B. Lebbie
Keyword(s):  
Body Weight ◽  
Feed Efficiency ◽  
Egg Production ◽  
Feed Consumption ◽  
Feed Restriction ◽  
Egg Weight ◽  
Laying Performance ◽  
Treatment Interaction ◽  
Ad Libitum ◽  
Dressing Percentage

SUMMARYTwo strains of commercial layers, 42 weeks old, were fed ad libitum, 85 and 70% of ad libitum for five 28-day periods to study the effects of feed restriction on body weight, carcass characteristics, laying performance and mortality. There were highly significant strain effects on all traits (P < 0·01) except dressing percentage. Period differences were also observed for egg production, egg weight and feed efficiency. In addition, in all cases the relationship between period and these traits was non-linear and was affected by strain or treatment.Feed restriction had significant effects (P < 0·01) on all traits except dressing percentage and mortality. Feed restriction to 70% of ad libitum reduced egg production, egg weight, body weight and feed consumption and improved feed efficiency. However, in most cases there was no difference between ad libitum feeding and 15% feed restriction.Strain × treatment interaction had significant effects on egg production and feed efficiency.

scholarly journals 401 Effect of zinc source and ractopamine hydrochloride on the growth performance and carcass characteristics of steers fed in confinement to harvest

2019 ◽  
Vol 97 (Supplement_3) ◽  
pp. 160-160
Author(s):  
John Wagner ◽  
William T Nelson ◽  
Terry Engle ◽  
Jerry Spears ◽  
Jeff Heldt ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Feed Efficiency ◽  
Average Daily Gain ◽  
Carcass Characteristics ◽  
Feedlot Cattle ◽  
Beef Steers ◽  
Live Animal ◽  
Zinc Source ◽  
Dressing Percentage ◽  
Ractopamine Hydrochloride ◽  
Daily Gain

Abstract Four hundred and thirty-two beef steers (346.3 ± 63.7 kg BW) were used to determine the effects of Zn source on feedlot cattle fed ractopamine hydrochloride. Cattle were blocked in groups of 54 by BW and housed in 48 pens containing 9 steers per pen. Pens within a weight block were randomly assigned to treatments in a 2 x 3 factorial arrangement, with factors being: 1) 0 or 30.1 mg of ractopamine HCl/kg DM fed during the final 29 days on feed; and 2) Zn source: 90 mg of supplemental Zn/kg DM from ZnSO4; Zn sulfate (67%) + Zn methionine (33%); and Zn from Zn hydroxychloride, fed through the entire feeding period. Cattle were fed a high concentrate finishing diet for 154 d and slaughtered at a commercial abattoir. Average daily gain, DMI, feed efficiency and carcass characteristics were determined after slaughter. Zinc source had no impact on live animal performance. Cattle fed ractopamine HCl had greater (P &lt; 0.01) final BW, greater (P &lt; 0.001) ADG, improved (P &lt; 0.001) G:F, heavier (P &lt; 0.01) HCW, and larger (P &lt; 0.05) longissimus muscle compared to non-ractopamine supplemented steers. There was a Zn source by ractopamine interaction (P &lt; 0.01) for dressing percentage. Cattle receiving ractopamine HCl with Zn hydroxychloride had a greater dressing percentage (P &lt; 0.05) when compared to ractopamine HCl cattle fed other Zn sources. Cattle receiving ractopamine HCl with Zn sulfate had a lesser dressing percentage (P &lt; 0.05) when compared to ractopamine HCl cattle fed other Zn sources. Additional Zn source by ractopamine HCl interactions were not significant. These data indicate that Zn source has minimal impacts on feedlot steer performance and carcass characteristics when supplemented to cattle receiving 0.0 or 30.1 mg of ractopamine HCl/kg DM.

scholarly journals Effects of Syngenta Enogen Feed Corn containing an α-amylase trait on finishing cattle performance and carcass characteristics1

2018 ◽  
Vol 3 (1) ◽  
pp. 504-512 ◽  
Author(s):  
M L Jolly-Breithaupt ◽  
M E Harris ◽  
B L Nuttelman ◽  
D B Burken ◽  
J C MacDonald ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Feed Efficiency ◽  
Carcass Characteristics ◽  
Feedlot Performance ◽  
Finishing Cattle ◽  
Main Effect ◽  
University Of Nebraska Lincoln ◽  
The University ◽  
Extension Center ◽  
Enzyme Supplement ◽  
Corn Hybrid

Abstract Two experiments evaluated the effects of feeding a new corn hybrid, containing an α-amylase enzyme trait, Syngenta Enogen Feed Corn (SYT-EFC), on feedlot performance and carcass characteristics at two locations. Experiment 1 utilized 300 calffed steers (298.5 ± 16.3 kg of BW) at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln Eastern Nebraska Research and Extension Center Mead, NE. Treatments were designed as a 2 × 2 + 1–factorial arrangement with factors consisting of 1) corn type (SYT-EFC or conventional [CON]) and 2) byproduct type (with or without Sweet Bran [SB]), or a BLEND of STY-EFC and CON without SB. In Exp. 2, 240 crossbred, calf-fed steers (287.6 ± 15.4 kg of BW) were utilized at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln Panhandle Research and Extension Center near Scottsbluff, NE. Steers were fed SYT-EFC, CON, BLEND, or CON with a commercial α-amylase enzyme supplement (CON-E). In Exp. 1, there was an interaction for ADG (P = 0.05) and G:F (P = 0.02). Steers fed SYT-EFC with SB had greater ADG and G:F than CON; however, in diets without SB, SYT-EFC and CON were not different resulting in a 10.1% change in G:F when steers were fed SYT-EFC in SB compared with CON and only 1.6% change between SYT-EFC and CON without SB. Energy values, based on performance data, resulted in a 6.5% and 8.3% change in NEm and NEg, respectively, for steers fed SYT-EFC and CON with SB and 1.6% change for both NEm and NEg for steers fed SYT-EFC and CON without SB. For the main effect of corn trait, steers fed SYT-EFC had greater marbling scores, fat depth, and calculated yield grade compared with CON (P ≤ 0.03). In diets without SB, there was no difference between SYT-EFC, CON, or BLEND for DMI, final BW, ADG, G:F, NEm, or NEg (P ≥ 0.35). In Exp. 2, cattle fed SYT-EFC, BLEND, or CON-E had greater final BW, ADG, and G:F than cattle fed CON (P ≤ 0.03). On average, NEm and NEg were 4.9% and 7.0% greater, respectively, for steers fed amylase enzyme treatments compared with CON (P ≤ 0.01). Hot carcass weights were greater in steers fed α-amylase treatments compared with CON (P &lt; 0.01). Feeding Syngenta Enogen Feed Corn, which contains an α-amylase enzyme trait, at both locations improved feed efficiency in finishing cattle diets containing WDGS or SB.

scholarly journals Effects of the association between whole cottonseed and calcium salts of fatty acids on nutrient intake, feedlot performance, and carcass characteristics of Bos indicus animals offered a high-concentrate diet

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Leonardo R. Müller ◽  
Daniel I C. G. Gouvêa ◽  
André F. Francischinelli ◽  
Guiherme D. A. Alvarenga ◽  
Pablo C Castagnino ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Fatty Acids ◽  
Soybean Oil ◽  
Feed Efficiency ◽  
Dry Matter ◽  
Bos Indicus ◽  
Carcass Characteristics ◽  
Dry Matter Intake ◽  
Feedlot Performance ◽  
Calcium Salts ◽  
Whole Cottonseed

Abstract This experiment evaluated the effects of feeding whole cottonseed (WC) and/or calcium salts of fatty acids (CSFA) on dry matter intake (DMI), performance, and carcass characteristics of Bos indicus animals receiving a high-concentrate diet during the finishing phase. On day 0, 96 Nellore bulls were blocked according to initial shrunk body weight (BW; 302 ± 26.7 kg) into group pens (4 animals/pen) and, within blocks, pens were randomly assigned to receive: 1) 15% of WC and 2% of CSFA [dry matter (DM) basis] of palm, cottonseed, and soybean oil (15WC; n = 6), 2) 10% of WC and 3% of CSFA (DM basis) of palm, cottonseed, and soybean oil (10WC; n = 6), 3) 5% of WC and 4% of CSFA (DM basis) of palm, cottonseed, and soybean oil (5WC; n = 6), and 4) 0% of WC and 5% of CSFA (DM basis) of palm, cottonseed, and soybean oil (0WC; n = 6). Diets were formulated to be isocaloric, isonitrogenous, and isolipidic. Experimental period lasted 108 days, whereas dry matter intake (DMI) was evaluated daily and blood samples and carcass measurements were obtained on days 0, 55, and 108 of the study. Upon slaughter on day 109, steaks were collected for determination of the chemical and fatty acid (FA) profile of the meat. No treatment effects (P ≥ 0.35) were observed on DMI, performance, average daily gain (ADG), carcass ultrasound measurements, and chemical variables of the steak. Nonetheless, including WC into the diets increased C12:0, C16:0, C16:1 trans-9, C17:0, C18:0, C18:1 cis-9, C18:2 cis-9,cis-12, C18:3 cis-9,cis-12,cis-15, saturated, and unsaturated FA intake (P &lt; 0.01). Moreover, adding WC increased DMI fluctuation and feed efficiency (P = 0.03), but decreased marbling (P ≤ 0.03). A treatment × day interaction was observed (P &lt; 0.01) for serum leptin concentration, as 10WC animals had greater leptin concentration on d 103 vs. other treatments (P &lt; 0.01). Regarding steak FA profile, WC addition into the diet increased C18:2 cis-7,trans-9 and C18:3 cis-9,cis-12,cis-15 (P &lt; 0.001), whereas saturated FA was quadratically affected (P = 0.02) and unsaturated FA was reduced for 15WC (P &lt; 0.04). In summary, increasing levels of CSFA into isolipidic finishing diets containing WC did not negatively impact feedlot performance, but reduced feed efficiency and increased marbling scores of Bos indicus bulls, demonstrating its feasibility as a technology to improve carcass traits of low-marbling animals.

scholarly journals Carcass characteristics and cuts of Santa Inês lambs fed different roughage proportions and fat source

2010 ◽  
Vol 39 (6) ◽  
pp. 1322-1327 ◽  
Author(s):  
Iraides Ferreira Furusho Garcia ◽  
Amélia Katiane de Almeida ◽  
Tharcilla Isabella Rodrigues Costa ◽  
Izac Leopoldino Júnior ◽  
Julimar do Sacramento Ribeiro ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Body Weight ◽  
Carcass Characteristics ◽  
Leg Length ◽  
Internal Length ◽  
Ad Libitum ◽  
Santa Inês ◽  
Total Leg

This work aimed at determining the influence of roughage proportions and fat source of the diet on characteristics of carcass and comercial cuts of lambs. It was used 24 non-castrated Santa Inês male lambs, ad libitum fed diet with two proportions of roughage (30 and 70%) and fat (no fat, protected fat, and soybean) slaughtered at an avarage body weight of 35.4 kg (± 1.5 kg). Animals fed 30% roughage diet showed the highest weights and carcass yields. The percentages of posterior arm and ham were higher in animals fed 30% roughage with no addition of fat source. Total leg length and internal length were higher in animals fed 70% roughage diet while leg width was higher for those fed 30% roughage diet. Addition of fat source in diets with high percentage of concentrate can increase carcass yields. This effect is higher when protected fat is used regarded to whole soybean. Although diets do not have effect on most of these cuts, the effect on the ham confirms the influence of the diet on this noble cuts.

scholarly journals Hatchability, Growth Performance, Feed Efficiency, and Survival of Normal Feathered Local, Sasso-rir and Their F1-cross Chickens Under on-station Management Condition in Southern Ethiopia

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
shewangizaw woltamo wolde ◽  
Tadele Mirkena ◽  
Aberra Melesse ◽  
Tadelle Dessie ◽  
Solomon Abegaz
Keyword(s):  
Body Weight ◽  
Survival Rate ◽  
Growth Performance ◽  
Feed Efficiency ◽  
Body Weight Gain ◽  
The Body ◽  
Southern Ethiopia ◽  
Feed Conversion ◽  
Egg Hatchability ◽  
F1 Cross

Abstract The Normal Feathered local chicken (LL), Sasso-RIR (SRSR) and their F1-cross (LSR) chickens were hatched to evaluated for egg hatchability, growth performance, feed efficiency and survival rate. After 14-days of brooding, 150 chicks of each genotype were randomly selected and further replicated in to five pens in a deep litter grower house consisting of 30 chicks each in a completely randomized design, and evaluated for a period of 16-weeks. Hatchability of fertile eggs was highest for LL (80.0 %), intermediate for LSR (68.6%) and lowest for SRSR (55.9%) chickens. The body weight (BW) of chicks at 2-weeks of age was 80.0, 76.3 and 61.5 g/bird for SRSR, LSR, and LL, respectively, the latter being the lowest (p<0.05). The respective BW at 8-weeks of age was 732, 587 and 451 g while at 18-weeks it was 1877, 1379 and 1070 g/bird and different from each other (p<0.05). During 3- to 8-weeks and 9- to 18-weeks growth periods, the LL chickens were inferior (p< 0.05) in feed intake (29.7 and 66.9 g/d/bird) whereas the SRSR chickens were superior (p< 0.05) in body weight gain (15.5 and 16.3 g/d/bird) and feed conversion ratio (2.67 and 5.35 g feed/ g gain), respectively. The mortality rate of chicken was not affected by genotypes. It can be concluded that the exotic blood of Sasso-RIR chicken had played a significant role in upgrading the growth rate and market weight of the local Normal Feathered chicken without adverse effect on hatchability, feed efficiency, and survival rate.

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