scholarly journals Global and regional temperature-change potentials for near-term climate forcers

2013 ◽  
Vol 13 (5) ◽  
pp. 2471-2485 ◽  
Author(s):  
W. J. Collins ◽  
M. M. Fry ◽  
H. Yu ◽  
J. S. Fuglestvedt ◽  
D. T. Shindell ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
South Asia ◽  
Temperature Change ◽  
Temperature Response ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Emission Region ◽  
Global Average ◽  
Ozone Precursors ◽  
Aerosol Emission ◽  
Regional Temperature ◽  
Near Term

Abstract. We examine the climate effects of the emissions of near-term climate forcers (NTCFs) from 4 continental regions (East Asia, Europe, North America and South Asia) using results from the Task Force on Hemispheric Transport of Air Pollution Source-Receptor global chemical transport model simulations. We address 3 aerosol species (sulphate, particulate organic matter and black carbon) and 4 ozone precursors (methane, reactive nitrogen oxides (NOx), volatile organic compounds and carbon monoxide). We calculate the global climate metrics: global warming potentials (GWPs) and global temperature change potentials (GTPs). For the aerosols these metrics are simply time-dependent scalings of the equilibrium radiative forcings. The GTPs decrease more rapidly with time than the GWPs. The aerosol forcings and hence climate metrics have only a modest dependence on emission region. The metrics for ozone precursors include the effects on the methane lifetime. The impacts via methane are particularly important for the 20 yr GTPs. Emissions of NOx and VOCs from South Asia have GWPs and GTPs of higher magnitude than from the other Northern Hemisphere regions. The analysis is further extended by examining the temperature-change impacts in 4 latitude bands, and calculating absolute regional temperature-change potentials (ARTPs). The latitudinal pattern of the temperature response does not directly follow the pattern of the diagnosed radiative forcing. We find that temperatures in the Arctic latitudes appear to be particularly sensitive to BC emissions from South Asia. The northern mid-latitude temperature response to northern mid-latitude emissions is approximately twice as large as the global average response for aerosol emission, and about 20–30% larger than the global average for methane, VOC and CO emissions.

scholarly journals Local and remote temperature response of regional SO<sub>2</sub> emissions

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Anna Lewinschal ◽  
Annica M. L. Ekman ◽  
Hans-Christen Hansson ◽  
Maria Sand ◽  
Terje K. Berntsen ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
East Asia ◽  
South Asia ◽  
Temperature Change ◽  
Radiative Forcing ◽  
Regional Scale ◽  
Temperature Response ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Emission Region ◽  
So2 Emissions ◽  
Emission Changes

Abstract. Short-lived anthropogenic climate forcers, such as sulphate aerosols, affect both climate and air quality. Despite being short-lived, these forcers do not affect temperatures only locally; regions far away from the emission sources are also affected. Climate metrics are often used e.g. in a policy context to compare the climate impact of different anthropogenic forcing agents. These metrics typically relate a forcing change in a certain region with a temperature change in another region and thus often require a separate model to convert emission changes to radiative forcing changes. In this study, we used a coupled Earth System Model (NorESM) to calculate emission-to-temperature-response metrics for sulphur dioxide (SO2) emission changes in four different policy-relevant regions: Europe, North America, East Asia and South Asia. We first increased the SO2 emissions in each individual region by an amount giving approximately the same global average radiative forcing change (−0.45 W m−2). The global mean temperature change per unit sulphur emission compared to the control experiment was independent of emission region and equal to ∼ 0.006 K/TgSyr−1. On a regional scale, the Arctic showed the largest temperature response in all experiments. The second largest temperature change occurred in the region of the imposed emission increase, except when South Asian emissions were changed; in this experiment, the temperature response was approximately the same in South Asia and East Asia. We also examined the non-linearity of the temperature response by removing all anthropogenic SO2 emissions over Europe in one experiment. In this case, the temperature response (both global and regional) was twice of that in the corresponding experiment with a European emission increase. This nonlinearity in the temperature response is one of many uncertainties associated with the use of simplified climate metrics.

scholarly journals Global and regional temperature-change potentials for near-term climate forcers

2012 ◽  
Vol 12 (9) ◽  
pp. 23261-23290 ◽  
Author(s):  
W. J. Collins ◽  
M. M. Fry ◽  
H. Yu ◽  
J. S. Fuglestvedt ◽  
D. T. Shindell ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Temperature Change ◽  
Radiative Forcing ◽  
Transport Model ◽  
Task Force ◽  
Temperature Response ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Emission Region ◽  
Nitric Oxides ◽  
Chemical Transport Model ◽  
Near Term

Abstract. We examine the climate effects of the emissions of near-term climate forcers (NTCFs) from 4 continental regions (East Asia, Europe, North America and South Asia) using radiative forcing from the task force on hemispheric transport of air pollution source-receptor global chemical transport model simulations. These simulations model the transport of 3 aerosol species (sulphate, particulate organic matter and black carbon) and 4 ozone precursors (methane, nitric oxides (NOx), volatile organic compounds and carbon monoxide). From the equilibrium radiative forcing results we calculate global climate metrics, global warming potentials (GWPs) and global temperature change potentials (GTPs) and show how these depend on emission region, and can vary as functions of time. For the aerosol species, the GWP(100) values are −37±12, −46±20, and 350±200 for SO2, POM and BC respectively for the direct effects only. The corresponding GTP(100) values are −5.2±2.4, −6.5±3.5, and 50±33. This analysis is further extended by examining the temperature-change impacts in 4 latitude bands. This shows that the latitudinal pattern of the temperature response to emissions of the NTCFs does not directly follow the pattern of the diagnosed radiative forcing. For instance temperatures in the Arctic latitudes are particularly sensitive to NTCF emissions in the northern mid-latitudes. At the 100-yr time horizon the ARTPs show NOx emissions can have a warming effect in the northern mid and high latitudes, but cooling in the tropics and Southern Hemisphere. The northern mid-latitude temperature response to northern mid-latitude emissions of most NTCFs is approximately twice as large as would be implied by the global average.

scholarly journals Surface temperature response to regional Black Carbon emissions: Do location and magnitude matter?

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Maria Sand ◽  
Terje K. Berntsen ◽  
Annica Ekman ◽  
Hans-Christen Hansson ◽  
Anna Lewinschal
Keyword(s):  
North America ◽  
Surface Temperature ◽  
South Asia ◽  
Black Carbon ◽  
Temperature Change ◽  
Radiative Forcing ◽  
Sea Surface ◽  
Emission Region ◽  
Regional Temperature ◽  
Fully Coupled

Abstract. Aerosol radiative forcing can influence climate both locally and far outside the emission region. Here we investigate Black Carbon (BC) aerosols emitted in four major emissions areas and evaluate the importance of emission location and magnitude, as well as the concept of the absolute regional temperature-change potentials. We perform simulations with a climate model (NorESM) with a fully coupled ocean and with fixed sea surface temperatures. BC emissions are increased by a rate of 10 and 20 in South Asia, North America and Europe, respectively, and by 5 and 10 in East Asia (due to higher emissions there). We find strikingly similar regional surface temperature responses and geographical patterns per unit BC emission in Europe and North America, but somewhat lower temperature sensitivities for East Asian emissions. BC emitted in South Asia shows a different geographical pattern by changing the Indian monsoon and cooling the surface. Choosing the highest emission rate results in lower surface temperature change per emission unit compared to the lowest rate, but the difference is generally not statistically significant except for the Arctic. An advantage of high-perturbation simulations is the clearer emergence of regional signals. Our results show that the linearity of normalized temperature effects of BC is fairly well preserved despite the relatively large perturbations, but that regional temperature coefficients calculated from high perturbations may be a conservative estimate. Regardless of emission region, BC causes a northward shift of the ITCZ, and this shift is apparent both with fully coupled ocean and with fixed sea surface temperatures. For these regional BC emissions perturbations, we find that the effective radiative forcing is not a good measure of the climate response.

scholarly journals Regional temperature change potentials for short-lived climate forcers based on radiative forcing from multiple models

2017 ◽  
Vol 17 (17) ◽  
pp. 10795-10809 ◽  
Author(s):  
Borgar Aamaas ◽  
Terje K. Berntsen ◽  
Jan S. Fuglestvedt ◽  
Keith P. Shine ◽  
William J. Collins
Keyword(s):  
East Asia ◽  
Temperature Change ◽  
Northern Hemisphere ◽  
Radiative Forcing ◽  
Atmospheric Transport ◽  
Winter Season ◽  
Temperature Response ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Regional Temperature ◽  
Hemisphere Winter

Abstract. We calculate the absolute regional temperature change potential (ARTP) of various short-lived climate forcers (SLCFs) based on detailed radiative forcing (RF) calculations from four different models. The temperature response has been estimated for four latitude bands (90–28° S, 28° S–28° N, 28–60° N, and 60–90° N). The regional pattern in climate response not only depends on the relationship between RF and surface temperature, but also on where and when emissions occurred and atmospheric transport, chemistry, interaction with clouds, and deposition. We present four emissions cases covering Europe, East Asia, the global shipping sector, and the entire globe. Our study is the first to estimate ARTP values for emissions during Northern Hemisphere summer (May–October) and winter season (November–April). The species studied are aerosols and aerosol precursors (black carbon, organic carbon, SO2, NH3), ozone precursors (NOx, CO, volatile organic compound), and methane (CH4). For the response to BC in the Arctic, we take into account the vertical structure of the RF in the atmosphere, and an enhanced climate efficacy for BC deposition on snow. Of all SLCFs, BC is the most sensitive to where and when the emissions occur, as well as giving the largest difference in response between the latitude bands. The temperature response in the Arctic per unit BC emission is almost four times larger and more than two times larger than the global average for Northern Hemisphere winter emissions for Europe and East Asia, respectively. The latitudinal breakdown likely gives a better estimate of the global temperature response as it accounts for varying efficacies with latitude. An annual pulse of non-methane SLCF emissions globally (representative of 2008) lead to a global cooling. In contrast, winter emissions in Europe and East Asia give a net warming in the Arctic due to significant warming from BC deposition on snow.

scholarly journals Surface temperature response to regional black carbon emissions: do location and magnitude matter?

2020 ◽  
Vol 20 (5) ◽  
pp. 3079-3089 ◽  
Author(s):  
Maria Sand ◽  
Terje K. Berntsen ◽  
Annica M. L. Ekman ◽  
Hans-Christen Hansson ◽  
Anna Lewinschal
Keyword(s):  
North America ◽  
Surface Temperature ◽  
South Asia ◽  
Radiative Forcing ◽  
Temperature Response ◽  
Sea Surface ◽  
Emission Region ◽  
Surface Temperatures ◽  
Regional Temperature ◽  
Fully Coupled

Abstract. Aerosol radiative forcing can influence climate both locally and far outside the emission region. Here we investigate black carbon (BC) aerosols emitted in four major emission areas and evaluate the importance of emission location and magnitude as well as the concept of the absolute regional temperature-change potentials (ARTP). We perform simulations with a climate model (NorESM) with a fully coupled ocean and with fixed sea surface temperatures. BC emissions for year 2000 are increased by factors of 10 and 20 in South Asia, North America, and Europe, respectively, and by 5 and 10 in East Asia (due to higher emissions there). The perturbed simulations and a reference simulation are run for 100 years with three ensemble members each. We find strikingly similar regional surface temperature responses and geographical patterns per unit BC emission in Europe and North America but somewhat lower temperature sensitivities for East Asian emissions. BC emitted in South Asia shows a different geographical pattern in surface temperatures, by changing the Indian monsoon and cooling the surface. We find that the ARTP approach rather accurately reproduces the fully coupled temperature response of NorESM. Choosing the highest emission rate results in lower surface temperature change per emission unit compared to the lowest rate, but the difference is generally not statistically significant except for the Arctic. An advantage of high-perturbation simulations is the clearer emergence of regional signals. Our results show that the linearity of normalized temperature effects of BC is fairly well preserved despite the relatively large perturbations but that regional temperature coefficients calculated from high perturbations may be a conservative estimate. Regardless of emission region, BC causes a northward shift of the ITCZ, and this shift is apparent both with a fully coupled ocean and with fixed sea surface temperatures. For these regional BC emission perturbations, we find that the effective radiative forcing is not a good measure of the climate response. A limitation of this study is the uncertainties in BC–cloud interactions and the amount of BC absorption, both of which are model dependent.

scholarly journals Regional temperature change potentials for short lived climate forcers from multiple models

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Borgar Aamaas ◽  
Terje K. Berntsen ◽  
Jan S. Fuglestvedt ◽  
Keith P. Shine ◽  
William J. Collins
Keyword(s):  
East Asia ◽  
Temperature Change ◽  
Northern Hemisphere ◽  
Radiative Forcing ◽  
Atmospheric Transport ◽  
Winter Season ◽  
Temperature Response ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Regional Temperature ◽  
Hemisphere Winter

Abstract. We calculate the absolute regional temperature change potential (ARTP) of various short lived climate forcers (SLCFs) based on detailed radiative forcing (RF) calculations from four different models. The temperature response has been estimated for four latitude bands (90–28° S, 28° S–28° N, 28–60° N, and 60–90° N). The regional pattern in climate response not only depends on the relationship between RF and surface temperature, but also on where and when emissions occurred and atmospheric transport, chemistry, interaction with clouds, and deposition. We present four emissions cases covering Europe, East Asia, the global shipping sector, and the globe. Our study is the first to estimate ARTP values for emissions during Northern Hemisphere summer (May–October) and winter season (November–April). The species studied are aerosols and aerosol precursors (black carbon (BC), organic carbon (OC), SO2, NH3), ozone precursors (NOx, CO, volatile organic compound (VOC)), and methane (CH4). For the response to BC in the Arctic, we take into account the vertical structure of the RF in the atmosphere, and an enhanced climate efficacy for BC deposition on snow. Of all SLCFs, BC is the most sensitive to where and when the emissions occur, as well as giving the largest difference in response between the latitude bands. The temperature response in the Arctic is almost 4 times larger and more than 2 times larger than the global average for Northern Hemisphere winter emissions for Europe and East Asia, respectively. The latitudinal breakdown gives likely a better estimate of the global temperature response as it accounts for varying efficacies with latitude. An annual pulse of non-methane SLCFs emissions globally (representative of 2008) leads to a global cooling. Whereas, winter emissions in Europe and East Asia give a net warming in the Arctic due to significant warming from BC deposition on snow.

scholarly journals The regional temperature implications of strong air quality measures

2019 ◽  
Vol 19 (24) ◽  
pp. 15235-15245 ◽  
Author(s):  
Borgar Aamaas ◽  
Terje Koren Berntsen ◽  
Bjørn Hallvard Samset
Keyword(s):  
Air Quality ◽  
Co2 Emissions ◽  
Potential Temperature ◽  
Temperature Response ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Anthropogenic Emissions ◽  
Baseline Scenario ◽  
Emission Mitigation ◽  
Global Cooling ◽  
Regional Temperature

Abstract. Anthropogenic emissions of short-lived climate forcers (SLCFs) affect both air quality and climate. How much regional temperatures are affected by ambitious SLCF emission mitigation policies is, however, still uncertain. We investigate the potential temperature implications of stringent air quality policies by applying matrices of regional temperature responses to new pathways for future anthropogenic emissions of aerosols, methane (CH4), and other short-lived gases. These measures have only a minor impact on CO2 emissions. Two main options are explored, one with climate optimal reductions (i.e., constructed to yield a maximum global cooling) and one with the maximum technically feasible reductions. The temperature response is calculated for four latitude response bands (90–28∘ S, 28∘ S–28∘ N, 28–60∘ N, and 60–90∘ N) by using existing absolute regional temperature change potential (ARTP) values for four emission regions: Europe, East Asia, shipping, and the rest of the world. By 2050, we find that global surface temperature can be reduced by -0.3±0.08 ∘C with climate-optimal mitigation of SLCFs relative to a baseline scenario and as much as −0.7 ∘C in the Arctic. Cutting CH4 and black carbon (BC) emissions contributes the most. The net global cooling could offset warming equal to approximately 15 years of current global CO2 emissions. On the other hand, mitigation of other SLCFs (e.g., SO2) leads to warming. If SLCFs are mitigated heavily, we find a net warming of about 0.1 ∘C, but when uncertainties are included a slight cooling is also possible. In the climate optimal scenario, the largest contributions to cooling come from the energy, domestic, waste, and transportation sectors. In the maximum technically feasible mitigation scenario, emission changes from the industry, energy, and shipping sectors will cause warming. Some measures, such as those in the agriculture waste burning, domestic, transport, and industry sectors, have large impacts on the Arctic, especially by cutting BC emissions in winter in areas near the Arctic.

scholarly journals Local and remote mean and extreme temperature response to regional aerosol emissions reductions

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Daniel M. Westervelt ◽  
Nora R. Mascioli ◽  
Arlene M. Fiore ◽  
Andrew J. Conley ◽  
Jean-François Lamarque ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Extreme Temperature ◽  
Temperature Response ◽  
Carbonaceous Aerosol ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Emissions Reductions ◽  
Aerosol Forcing ◽  
Regional Temperature ◽  
The Tropics ◽  
Aerosol Emissions ◽  
Temperature Responses

Abstract. The climatic implications of regional aerosol and precursor emissions reductions implemented to protect human health are poorly understood. We investigate the mean and extreme temperature response to regional changes in aerosol emissions using three coupled chemistry-climate models: NOAA GFDL-CM3, NCAR-CESM1, and NASA GISS-E2. Our approach contrasts a long present-day control simulation from each model (up to 400 years with perpetual year 2000 or 2005 emissions) with fourteen individual aerosol emissions perturbation simulations (160–240 years each). We perturb emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and/or carbonaceous aerosol within six world regions and assess the statistical significance of mean and extreme temperature responses relative to internal variability determined by the control simulation and across the models. In all models, the global mean surface temperature response (perturbation minus control) to SO2 and/or carbonaceous aerosol is mostly positive (warming), statistically significant, and ranges from +0.17 K (Europe SO2) to −0.06 K (US BC). The warming response to SO2 reductions is strongest in the US and Europe perturbation simulations, both globally and regionally, with Arctic warming up to 1 K due to a removal of European anthropogenic SO2 emissions alone; however, even emissions from regions remote to the Arctic, such as SO2 from India, significantly warm the Arctic by up to 0.5 K. Arctic warming is the most robust response across each model and several aerosol emissions perturbations. The temperature response in the northern hemisphere mid-latitudes is most sensitive to emissions perturbations within that region. In the tropics, however, the temperature response to emissions perturbations is roughly the same in magnitude from emissions perturbations either within or outside of the tropics. We find that climate sensitivity to regional aerosol perturbations ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 K per W m−2 depending on the region and aerosol composition, and is larger than the climate sensitivity to a doubling of CO2 in two of three models. We update previous estimates of Regional Temperature Potential (RTP), a metric for estimating the regional temperature responses to a regional emissions perturbation that can facilitate assessment of climate impacts with integrated assessment models without requiring computationally demanding coupled climate model simulations. These calculations indicate a robust regional response to aerosol forcing within the northern hemisphere mid-latitudes, regardless of where the aerosol forcing is located longitudinally. We show that regional aerosol perturbations can significantly increase extreme temperatures on the regional scale. Except in the Arctic in the summer, extreme temperature responses largely mirror mean temperature responses to regional aerosol perturbations through a shift of the temperature distributions and are mostly dominated by local rather than remote aerosol forcing.

scholarly journals Local and remote temperature response of regional SO<sub>2</sub> emissions

2019 ◽  
Vol 19 (4) ◽  
pp. 2385-2403 ◽  
Author(s):  
Anna Lewinschal ◽  
Annica M. L. Ekman ◽  
Hans-Christen Hansson ◽  
Maria Sand ◽  
Terje K. Berntsen ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
East Asia ◽  
South Asia ◽  
Temperature Change ◽  
Radiative Forcing ◽  
Temperature Response ◽  
Earth System Model ◽  
System Model ◽  
Earth System ◽  
So2 Emissions ◽  
Emission Changes

Abstract. Short-lived anthropogenic climate forcers (SLCFs), such as sulfate aerosols, affect both climate and air quality. Despite being short-lived, these forcers do not affect temperatures only locally; regions far away from the emission sources are also affected. Climate metrics are often used in a policy context to compare the climate impact of different anthropogenic forcing agents. These metrics typically relate a forcing change in a certain region with a temperature change in another region and thus often require a separate model to convert emission changes to radiative forcing (RF) changes. In this study, we used a coupled Earth system model, NorESM (Norwegian Earth System Model), to calculate emission-to-temperature-response metrics for sulfur dioxide (SO2) emission changes in four different policy-relevant regions: Europe (EU), North America (NA), East Asia (EA) and South Asia (SA). We first increased the SO2 emissions in each individual region by an amount giving approximately the same global average radiative forcing change (−0.45 Wm−2). The global mean temperature change per unit sulfur emission compared to the control experiment was independent of emission region and equal to ∼0.006 K(TgSyr−1)−1. On a regional scale, the Arctic showed the largest temperature response in all experiments. The second largest temperature change occurred in the region of the imposed emission increase, except when South Asian emissions were changed; in this experiment, the temperature response was approximately the same in South Asia and East Asia. We also examined the non-linearity of the temperature response by removing all anthropogenic SO2 emissions over Europe in one experiment. In this case, the temperature response (both global and regional) was twice that in the corresponding experiment with a European emission increase. This non-linearity in the temperature response is one of many uncertainties associated with the use of simplified climate metrics.

scholarly journals Local and remote mean and extreme temperature response to regional aerosol emissions reductions

2020 ◽  
Vol 20 (5) ◽  
pp. 3009-3027 ◽  
Author(s):  
Daniel M. Westervelt ◽  
Nora R. Mascioli ◽  
Arlene M. Fiore ◽  
Andrew J. Conley ◽  
Jean-François Lamarque ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Extreme Temperature ◽  
Temperature Response ◽  
Carbonaceous Aerosol ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Emissions Reductions ◽  
Aerosol Forcing ◽  
Regional Temperature ◽  
The Tropics ◽  
Aerosol Emissions ◽  
Temperature Responses

Abstract. The climatic implications of regional aerosol and precursor emissions reductions implemented to protect human health are poorly understood. We investigate the mean and extreme temperature response to regional changes in aerosol emissions using three coupled chemistry–climate models: NOAA GFDL CM3, NCAR CESM1, and NASA GISS-E2. Our approach contrasts a long present-day control simulation from each model (up to 400 years with perpetual year 2000 or 2005 emissions) with 14 individual aerosol emissions perturbation simulations (160–240 years each). We perturb emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and/or carbonaceous aerosol within six world regions and assess the statistical significance of mean and extreme temperature responses relative to internal variability determined by the control simulation and across the models. In all models, the global mean surface temperature response (perturbation minus control) to SO2 and/or carbonaceous aerosol is mostly positive (warming) and statistically significant and ranges from +0.17 K (Europe SO2) to −0.06 K (US BC). The warming response to SO2 reductions is strongest in the US and Europe perturbation simulations, both globally and regionally, with Arctic warming up to 1 K due to a removal of European anthropogenic SO2 emissions alone; however, even emissions from regions remote to the Arctic, such as SO2 from India, significantly warm the Arctic by up to 0.5 K. Arctic warming is the most robust response across each model and several aerosol emissions perturbations. The temperature response in the Northern Hemisphere midlatitudes is most sensitive to emissions perturbations within that region. In the tropics, however, the temperature response to emissions perturbations is roughly the same in magnitude as emissions perturbations either within or outside of the tropics. We find that climate sensitivity to regional aerosol perturbations ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 K (W m−2)−1 depending on the region and aerosol composition and is larger than the climate sensitivity to a doubling of CO2 in two of three models. We update previous estimates of regional temperature potential (RTP), a metric for estimating the regional temperature responses to a regional emissions perturbation that can facilitate assessment of climate impacts with integrated assessment models without requiring computationally demanding coupled climate model simulations. These calculations indicate a robust regional response to aerosol forcing within the Northern Hemisphere midlatitudes, regardless of where the aerosol forcing is located longitudinally. We show that regional aerosol perturbations can significantly increase extreme temperatures on the regional scale. Except in the Arctic in the summer, extreme temperature responses largely mirror mean temperature responses to regional aerosol perturbations through a shift of the temperature distributions and are mostly dominated by local rather than remote aerosol forcing.

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