High-Precision Adjustment of Welding Depth during Laser Micro Welding of Copper Using Superpositioned Spatial and Temporal Power Modulation

For joining metallic materials for battery applications such as copper and stainless steel, laser beam micro welding with beam sources in the near-infrared range has become established in recent years. In laser beam micro welding, spatial power modulation describes the superposition of the linear feed motion with an oscillating motion. This modulation method serves to widen the cross-section of the weld seam as well as to increase the process stability. Temporal power modulation refers to the controlled modulation of the laser power over time during the welding process. In this paper, the superposition of both temporal and spatial power modulation methods is presented, which enables a variable control of the weld penetration depth. Three weld geometries transverse to the feed direction are part of this investigation: the compensation of the weld penetration depth due to the asymmetric path movement during spatial power modulation only, a W-shaped weld profile, and a V-shaped. The weld geometries are investigated by the bed on plate weld tests with CuSn6. Furthermore, the use of combined power modulation for welding tests in butt joint configuration between CuSn6 and stainless steel 1.4301 with different material properties is investigated. The study shows the possibility of precise control of the welding depth by this methodology. Depending on the material combination, the desired regions with maximum and minimum welding depth can be achieved by the control of local and temporal power modulation on the material surface.

CHARACTERIZATION OF PHOTODIODES FOR DETECTION OF VARIATIONS IN PART-TO-PART GAP AND WELD PENETRATION DEPTH DURING REMOTE LASER WELDING OF COPPER-TO-STEEL BATTERY TAB CONNECTORS

This paper addresses sensor characterization to detect variations in part-to-part gap and weld penetration depth using photodiode-based signals during Remote Laser Welding (RLW) of battery tab connectors. Photodiode-based monitoring has been implemented largely for structural welds due to its relatively low cost and ease of automation. However, research in sensor characterization, monitoring and diagnosis of weld defects during joining of battery tab connectors is at an infancy and results are inconclusive. Motivated by the high variability during the welding process of dissimilar metallic thin foils, this paper aims to characterize the signals generated by a photodiode-based sensor to determine whether variations in weld quality can be isolated and diagnosed. Photodiode-based signals were collected during RLW of copper-to-steel thin-foil lap joint (Ni-plated copper 300 μm to Ni-plated steel 300 μm). The presented methodology is based on the evaluation of the energy intensity and scatter level of the signals. The energy intensity gives information about the amount of radiation emitted during the welding process, and the scatter level is associated with the accumulated and un-controlled variations. Findings indicated that part-to-part gap variations can be diagnosed by observing the step-change in the plasma signal, with no significant contribution given by the back-reflection. Results further suggested that over-penetration corresponds to significant increment of the scatter level in the sensor signals. Opportunities for automatic isolation and diagnosis of defective welds based on supervised machine learning are discussed.

Advances in friction stir welding by separate control of shoulder and probe

Friction stir welding (FSW) has developed into a reliable and increasing used industrial joining technology. Various tool configurations can be used for FSW, each of which has advantages and challenges. State-of-the-art FSW employs various tool configurations, including the conventional, the stationary shoulder, and the dual-rotational configuration which is characterized by separate control of shoulder and probe. In this study, an innovative method to combine various tool configurations was developed by a novel FSW spindle stack construction. With an additional servomotor, existing FSW systems can be extended by separate control of shoulder and probe so that varying rotational speeds and rotational directions can be set. This allows enhanced possibilities (a) to adjust frictional heat generation and (b) to apply several tool configurations. The main advantages of this enhanced type of FSW are demonstrated in three ways: increased weld penetration depth, reduction of undesirable machine vibrations, and the combination of varying tool configurations such as stationary shoulder and conventional FSW. The investigations were carried out with 2-mm EN AA 5754 H22 sheets and performed on a robotized FSW setup.

Photodiode-Based In-Process Monitoring of Part-to-Part Gap and Weld Penetration Depth in Remote Laser Welding of Copper-to-Steel Battery Tab Connectors

This paper addresses in-process monitoring of part-to-part gap and weld penetration depth using photodiode-based signals during Remote Laser Welding (RLW) of battery tab connectors. Photodiode-based monitoring has been largely implemented for structural welds due to its relatively low cost and ease of automation. However, the application of photodiode-based monitoring to RLW of thin foils of dissimilar metals for battery tab connectors remains an unexplored area of research and will be addressed in this paper. Motivated by the high variability during the welding process of thin foils of dissimilar metals, this paper aims to evaluate the photodiode-based signals to determine if variations in weld quality can be isolated and diagnosed. The main focus is in diagnosing defective weld conditions caused by part-to-part gap variations and/or excessive weld penetration depth. Photodiode-based signals have been collected during RLW of copper-to-steel thin foils lap joint (Ni-plated copper 300 μm to Ni-plated steel 300 μm). The methodology is based on the evaluation of the energy intensity and scatter level of the signals. The energy intensity gives information about the amount of radiation emitted during the welding process, and the scatter level is associated to the accumulated and un-controlled variations. Findings indicated that part-to-part gap variations can be diagnosed by observing the step-change in the plasma signal, with no significant contribution given by the back-reflection. Results further suggested that over-penetration corresponds to significant increment of the scatter level in the sensor signals. Opportunities for automatic isolation and diagnosis of defective welds based on supervised machine learning will be discussed throughout the paper.

Dependence of Dowel Joint Strength on Welding Temperature in Rotary Welding

The system for measuring the welding temperature with measuring probes has been developed for the requirements of this but also of future research (at the Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, University of Zagreb). The research is based on determining the welding temperature and its impact on the joint strength or the embedded force of the dowel. Based on research results, the impact of the dowel rotation frequency and temperature on the joint strength has been determined. The measured welding temperature increased as the rotation frequency increased (the rotation frequencies of 865 min-1 and 1520 min-1 were used in the research). The maximum welding temperature in pine samples welded at the rotation frequency of 1520 min-1 amounts to 217 °C, while in samples welded at the rotation frequency of 865 min-1 it amounts to 179 °C (weld penetration of 20 mm). The maximum welding temperature in beech samples welded at the rotation frequency of 865 min-1 amounts to 181 °C, and 213 °C at the rotation frequency of 1520 min-1 (weld penetration of 20 mm). The impact of the wood type on the welding temperature has not been proven. In order to avoid difficulties encountered in contact measurement of the welding temperature, a heat transfer model was developed for a more precise determination of the welding temperature.

Improvement in Depth of Weld Penetration During TIG, Activated-TIG, and Pulsed TIG Welding

Joining of dissimilar materials has gained a lot of interest in the recent years due to the increased demand of high strength and light weight designs. Fusion welding plays a vital role in repairing and manufacturing industries like automobile, construction, ship building, and energy sector. Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding is more advantageous over other welding processes as it produces high precision welds with aesthetic appearance. The limitation of the process is shallow penetration, distorted and weaker joint formation, and low productivity. In the present work, a critical review and analysis has been done on weld penetration and its enhancement during TIG, activated flux TIG, and pulsed current TIG welding of steels. The purpose of this review is to raise an insight about using the variants of TIG, minimising the energy consumption and heat affected zone while increasing the weld penetration and productivity. Proper selection of welding parameters along with welding speed, electrode diameter, shielding gas, electrode tip angle, arc gap, and flux greatly increase the weld penetration.