Hygienic Behavior of Apis mellifera and Its Relationship with Varroa destructor Infestation and Honey Production in the Central Highlands of Ecuador

The aim of this research was to analyze the relationship among hygienic behavior (HB), Varroa destructor infestation, and honey production in the central highlands of Ecuador. Overall, 75 honey bee colonies were evaluated before, during, and after production at three altitude levels (2600–2800, 2801–3000, and >3000 m.a.s.l.). The hygienic behavior percentage of the colonies was determined by the pin-killing method, and the colonies were classified into three groups: high HB (>85%), mid HB (60.1–85%), and low HB (≤60%). Varroa infestation was diagnosed as well, and honey production was evaluated only during production. HB was high and heterogeneous, averaging 80% ± 9.7%. Its highest expression was observed at lower altitudes. The infestation degree was low (3.47% ± 1.56%), although the mite was detected in all colonies upon sampling. A negative correlation was observed between HB and Varroa infestation in the first sampling (−0.49 **), suggesting that the high- and mid-altitude HB colonies underwent the lowest infestation rates, regardless of sampling. The correlations between HB and production were significant (0.26 *), indicating a positive effect of HB on production, meaning that colonies with high HB obtained the highest honey production (25.08 ± 4.82 kg/hive). The HB of bees showed an inverse relationship with altitude and it tended to reduce the effect of Varroa infestation, favoring honey production and, thus, suggesting the feasibility of selecting colonies with high HB.

Genetic Progress Achieved during 10 Years of Selective Breeding for Honeybee Traits of Interest to the Beekeeping Industry

Genetic improvement programs have resulted in spectacular productivity gains for most animal species in recent years. The introduction of quantitative genetics and the use of statistical models have played a fundamental role in achieving these advances. For the honeybee (Apis mellifera), genetic improvement programs are still rare worldwide. Indeed, genetic and reproductive characteristics are more complex in honeybees than in other animal species, which presents additional challenges for access genetic selection. In recent years, advances in informatics have allowed statistical modelling of the honeybee, notably with the BLUP-animal model, and access to genetic selection for this species is possible now. The aim of this project was to present the genetic progress of several traits of interest to the Canadian beekeeping industry (hygienic behavior, honey production and spring development) achieved in our selection program since 2010. Our results show an improvement of 0.30% per year for hygienic behavior, 0.63 kg per year for honey production and 164 brood cells per year for spring development. These advances have opened a new era for our breeding program and sharing this superior genetic available to beekeepers will contribute to the sustainability and self-sufficiency of the beekeeping industry in Canada.

The payoffs and tradeoffs of hygienic behavior: A large-scale field study on a local population of honey bees

Honey bees (Apis mellifera) are exposed to a variety of risk factors, but the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor and its associated viruses are considered to be the most significant problem worldwide. It has been widely recognized that honey bee stocks resistant to the mites are an essential part of any sustainable long-term management of Varroa. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of hygienic behavior in a local population of honey bees in order to reduce Varroa infestation. A bi-directional selection for high and low rates of hygienic behavior was carried out in Israel using either queen artificially inseminated or naturally mated. Colonies were screened for performance: population size, honey production, control of Varroa infestation, and the level of hygienic behavior. Furthermore, we examined the costs and benefits of selection using measurements of colony performance. Either way, selected lines should be tested for trade-offs and benefits to ensure their productivity. The selection process revealed that the trait is heritable. Maternal phenotype has a significant effect on Varroa load, as colonies founded by hygienic daughter queens showed a significantly lower parasite load. No major trade-offs were found between the rate of hygienic behavior, honey yield, and population size. Measuring the direct benefits of hygienic behavior through colony performance suggests that breeding for this trait makes bees more resistant to Varroa destructor. These results are promising for our successful local bee breeding programs in a Mediterranean climate.

Alteration of Termite Locomotion and Allogrooming in Response to Infection by Pathogenic Fungi

Termites, being vulnerable to parasitic or pathogenic infections due to large number of individuals living together in colonies, have evolved various behavioral and physiological tactics to resist the infections by those pathogens. Locomotion can help termites collect information on parasites and accordingly exhibit hygienic behaviors. Termites inevitably encounter entomopathogenic fungi during nesting and foraging. However, how these fungal pathogens influence locomotion of termites and how hygienic behavior benefits their survival remains unknown. Here, we examined locomotion alteration of the termite Reticulitermes chinensis (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) after infections with different concentrations of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae (Hypocreales: Clavicipitaceae). When R. chinensis was isolated, the low concentration (5 × 103 conidia/ml) significantly increased termite locomotion after 6, 12, and 24 h compared with control. However, the high concentrations (5 × 107, 5 × 109 conidia/ml) significantly decreased termite locomotion after 48 h, and termite survival was also significantly lower at 5 × 107 and 5 × 109 conidia/ml compared with the low concentrations and the control. When R. chinensis was in group, however, the locomotion significantly increased 24 h after exposure to 5 × 103 and 5 × 109 conidia/ml but was normalized after 48 h of exposure compared with the control. Allogrooming was significantly higher at 5 × 103 and 5 × 109 conidia/ml compared with the control. The fungal infection did not result in significantly higher mortality of the group termites probably owing to their allogrooming. These findings enhance our understanding on how a termite species copes with biotic stress (i.e., fungal infections) via adaptive behaviors.

Challenges of the Vegetable Production and Distribution Industry during the COVID-19 Pandemic

Background: Recently, there are many concerns about the health consequences of COVID-19 as well as the global food supply. For this reason, assessing the impact of pandemic effects on the vegetable chain is critical to set policies to ensure an adequate supply of vegetables. Methods: In this study, major centers of processing and distribution of vegetables in various areas of Tehran have been studied. In the first phase, the status of the hygienic behavior of 192 staff of these centers in the COVID-19 pandemic, and in the second phase, the challenges of these centers were assessed. Data were collected through completing questionnaires, observation, and interviews with staff and statistically analyzed using SPSS. The relationship between independent (demographic characteristics) and dependent (behavior) variables were analyzed using multivariate logistic regression analysis. Results: In the first quantitative phase, up to 51% of the respondents had a good hygienic behavior towards various aspects of the preventive measures. The behavioral mean scores were significantly related to educational level (p <0.05). Findings of the qualitative phase revealed that the outbreak of COVID-19, quarantine, and social distance measures to prevent transmission of the COVID-19 virus have not disrupted the vegetable supply chain, but it was observed that vegetable distributors and manufacturers have suffered the most from declining sales and after that, due to price volatility during the epidemic which is mostly due to lock-down. Conclusion: In general, the current economic situation may seriously impair the livelihoods of disadvantaged groups. Although most staff at vegetable centers follow the safety measures of using masks, these results show that this part of the population that is in continuous contact with different persons have not taken COVID-19 disease seriously. Running title: Challenges of processing and distribution vegetable centers