The Impostor Phenomenon: Toward a Better Understanding of the Nomological Network and Gender Differences

The impostor phenomenon (IP) refers to the tendency to perceive oneself as intellectually incompetent and to attribute one’s own success to effort-related or external factors, such as fortunate circumstances. The present study (N=209) aimed to contribute to open questions regarding gender differences in the IP and the nomological network of the IP. The results show that the consistently found key correlates of the IP, that is, lower self-esteem and higher neuroticism, could also play a role in explaining why women report higher impostor feelings than men in many studies. Moreover, the results suggest that IP is characterized by the more maladaptive, socially prescribed perfectionism, which is related to the belief that others expect perfection from oneself, whereas self-oriented perfectionism, which is characterized by a critical view on oneself, plays a smaller role in differences in the IP. Finally, a strong association with the sandbagging construct challenges the conceptualization of the IP as a genuine doubt about one’s own competence, because similarly to IP, sandbaggers present themselves negatively to others, but do so for very strategic reasons in order to create a low expectation base in other individuals. Regression analysis was used to assess the incremental value of the personality factors in explaining variance in the IP. It was found that sandbagging and IP are highly related but not interchangeable.

Impostor Phenomenon in Dental Students

Impostor phenomenon (IP) is the individual experience of extreme self-doubt in which a person attributes successes and accomplishments to external factors rather than his or her own talent, capabilities, or effort (Clance & Imes, 1978). For students, IP can cause significant and persistent interference in academic and professional experience (Clance, 1985b; Cromwell, Brown, Sanchez-Huceles, & Adair, 1990; Henning, Ey, & Shaw, 1998; Li, Hughes, & Thu, 2014; McGregor, Gee, & Posey, 2008; Oriel, Plane, & Mundt, 2004; Thompson, Davis, & Davidson, 1998). To date, there is limited research on IP in the dental student population, with no known research specifically on the extent to which dental students suffer from impostor feelings. Using the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (Clance, 1985a), this study measured the level of reported impostor feelings in a sample of dental students at a dental school located at a small private university in the Midwestern United States. Relationships between gender, class year, race or ethnic identity, first-generation (in dentistry) status, and reported levels of IP were explored. In this study, a majority (58.3%) of the dental students in the sample exhibited levels of IP above the clinical threshold, demonstrating the significant impact of impostor feelings on their academic, professional, and personal lives. Statistically significant differences in CIPS scores were found when evaluating differences between race or ethnic groups (those identifying as Hispanic, Latino, or Latina versus those not identifying that way) and when comparing scores for URM and non-URM students. The study fills a gap in the existing body of knowledge regarding the prevalence of IP in the dental student population. For researchers, educators, and administrators in dental education, this study establishes a benchmark for measuring the incidence of IP, paving the way for a more comprehensive understanding of how to effectively and holistically educate students in dentistry.

Validation of the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale with female Hebrew-speaking students

The Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS) is a measure widely used to assess individuals’ self-perceptions of intellectual and professional fraudulence. The study aimed to investigate the psychometric properties of the Hebrew form for the CIPS (HCIPS) in female Hebrew-speaking students, in an attempt to further clarify its structure and strengthen its validity in international settings. The study comprised a sample of 248 female students ( M age = 27.74, SD = 7.32), who completed an online version of the questionnaire. Our results generally demonstrated satisfactory psychometric properties of the HCIPS total scale, with its internal consistency, reliability, and item-total-correlations meeting the standard criteria. The exploratory factor analysis yielded a stable four-factor solution for the 19-items, with its factors accounting for 54.81% of the model’s variance. The confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the four-factor model as compatible, with its fit-indices meeting the minimal standards of goodness of fit. The study’s findings are the first to identify a four-factor model, which improves the imbalanced factorial composition characterizing the common three-factor model. Subject to the study’s limitations, this evidence suggests that the HCIPS is a sound instrument for assessing impostor feelings among female Hebrew-speaking students.

Impostor Feelings of Music Education Graduate Students

Impostor phenomenon (IP) is the psychological construct used to describe potentially debilitating feelings of fraud and fear of being exposed as a phony in individuals who are actually high achieving and successful. The purpose of this study was to investigate the IP feelings of music education graduate students. A total of 130 master’s and doctoral students completed a survey that included the Clance IP Scale, the Graduate Music Student Scale, and demographic items. Results indicated that impostor feelings were present in a substantial percentage of the participants. Full-time student status was associated with stronger IP responses than part-time status, as was working on the degree face-to-face versus hybrid. More frequent and intense impostor feelings were experienced by females versus males, participants ages 26 to 35, students who were not married or in a committed relationship, and those who were the first in their family to attend graduate school. Master’s and doctoral students’ IP responses were not different, but successive year in the graduate program was associated with stronger impostor feelings. Based on the possible detrimental effects of strong impostor feelings, the findings should raise concern for students, their instructors, and their mentors.

Behold the best and worst of me: the impostor phenomenon and academic behavior in the business area,

ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to analyze the relationship between the impostor phenomenon (IP) and the academic behavior of stricto sensu postgraduate students in business area courses. Discussing the relationship between psychological variables and student academic behavior is a topic of interest as empirical evidence indicates that these variables affect the environment in which scientific research is developed. It is important to look for elements that help in understanding the IP in order to reduce its impacts on the performance, behavior, and feelings of students. Postgraduate students enrolled in stricto sensu courses may be refusing opportunities to advance in their professional careers and adopting behaviors that are discordant with those desired by universities because they feel like impostors in terms of their abilities. Besides the relevance of the relationships analyzed, this research also uses the Meurer and Costa Scale of Academic Behaviors - Stricto Sensu (MCSAB-SS), which can measure academic behaviors displayed in Brazilian postgraduate courses, enabling the development of new investigations into the topic. The population includes postgraduates enrolled in 2018 in academic master’s, professional master’s, and academic doctorate courses in administration, accounting, and economics, known as the business area. The data collection was operationalized via a survey carried out online, which obtained 1,816 valid participations. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, exploratory factor analysis, and the Spearman’s correlation. Higher levels of impostor feelings are positively associated with displays of counterproductive academic behaviors and are mostly negatively associated with academic citizenship behaviors. After identifying the IP in students, actions to minimize these feelings can be implemented, given that postgraduate students with the IP may not be engaging in the activities that permeate stricto sensu, thus damaging the climate and culture of cooperation needed in academia.

Coping with Impostor Feelings: Evidence Based Recommendations from a Mixed Methods Study

Objective – The negative effects of impostor phenomenon, also called impostor syndrome, include burnout and decreased job satisfaction and have led to an increased interest in addressing this issue in libraries in recent years. While previous research has shown that many librarians experience impostor phenomenon, the experience of coping with these feelings has not been widely studied. The aim of our study was to understand how health sciences librarians cope with impostor phenomenon in the workplace. Methods – We conducted a census of 2125 Medical Library Association members between October and December 2017. An online survey featuring the Harvey Impostor Phenomenon scale and open-ended questions about coping strategies to address impostor phenomenon at work was administered to all eligible participants. We used thematic analysis to explore strategies for addressing impostor phenomenon and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to examine relationships between impostor phenomenon scores and coping strategies. Results – Among 703 survey respondents, 460 participants completed the qualitative portion of the survey (65%). We found that external coping strategies that drew on the help of another person or resource, such as education, support from colleagues, and mentorship, were associated with lower impostor scores and more often rated by participants as effective, while internal strategies like reflection, mindfulness, and recording praise were associated with less effectiveness and a greater likelihood of impostor feelings. Most respondents reported their strategies to be effective, and the use of any strategy appeared to be more effective than not using one at all. Conclusions – This study provides evidence based recommendations for librarians, library leaders, and professional organizations to raise awareness about impostor phenomenon and support our colleagues experiencing these feelings. We attempt to situate our recommendations within the context of potential barriers, such as white supremacy culture, the resilience narrative, and the lack of open communication in library organizations.

Impostor Syndrome: A Calling for a Career in Medical Education? (Preprint)

UNSTRUCTURED Is it possible that medical students suffer from impostor syndrome due to inadequate teaching methods? Although there is no evidence to support this hypothesis, it is worth exploring: impostor syndrome could be an outcome of defective teaching methodology in medical schools. Students who are most affected may be the ones most invested in growth and learning, and the impostor feelings could signify a tendency to simplify, understand and explain essential concepts. This could translate into a talent in medical teaching. A personal experience that led to a vocation for medical education is used as an example of this internal process that could benefit medical students and healthcare professionals with similar perceptions.

Impostor Feelings and Psychological Distress Among Asian Americans: Interpersonal Shame and Self-Compassion

We examined how the association between impostor feelings and psychological distress was mediated by interpersonal shame and moderated by self-compassion in a sample of 433 Asian American students at an East Coast public university. First, we found that the positive association between impostor feelings and psychological distress was partially mediated by interpersonal shame (i.e., shame related to others viewing them negatively or dishonoring their family due to their deficits). Second, self-compassion significantly moderated the positive association between impostor feelings and interpersonal shame. Specifically, this positive association was stronger for those with lower self-compassion than for those with higher self-compassion. Third, the index of moderated mediation further supported that self-compassion moderated the mediation through an indirect effect of impostor feelings on psychological distress through interpersonal shame. We found additional results which supported the moderation and moderated mediation hypotheses for the three specific components of self-compassion (i.e., common humanity, self-judgment, and over-identification).

The Impostor Phenomenon Among Postdoctoral Trainees in STEM: A US-Based Mixed-Methods Study

Aim/Purpose: This mixed-methods research study examined impostor phenomenon during postdoctoral training in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) through the following research question: “What are the manifestations of the impostor phenomenon experienced during postdoctoral training in STEM?” Background: The impostor phenomenon occurs when competent, high-achieving students and professionals believe that they are fraud and will be exposed eventually. It involves fear of failure, lack of authenticity, feeling fake or fraud-like, denial of one’s competence, and is linked to lower self-esteem, mental health consequences, and lack of belonging. Methodology: This study was conducted with US-based postdoctoral trainees (or postdocs) using mixed-methods approach. The study examined aspects of impostor phenomenon among 43 postdocs by converging survey data using Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS) and qualitative data from semi-structured interviews from the same participants. Both convenience and snowball sampling were used. Majority of the participants were White, female, and from science disciplines. Interview findings were organized into themes using constant comparative method and analytic induction. Contribution: Findings pointed to the need for better designing professional development programs for postdocs that would: 1) address fears and insecurities due to impostor-feelings, 2) normalize conversations around perceived failure, judgment, and one’s lack of belonging, and 3) provide support with networking, mentoring, academic communication, and mental health challenges. Findings: Survey results indicated moderate to intense impostor-feelings; interviews found six triggers of the impostor phenomenon during postdoctoral training: 1. not pursuing new things, 2. not making social connections, 3. impaired academic communication, 4. not applying, 5. procrastination and mental health, and 6. feeling undeserving and unqualified. Current findings were compared with prior findings of impostor-triggers among PhD students who also experienced the first three of these challenges during doctoral training: challenges to applying newly learnt knowledge in other domains, reaching out for help, and developing skills in academic communication verbally and through academic writing. Recommendations for Practitioners: The office of postdoctoral affairs could design professional development programs and individual development plans for those experiencing the impostor phenomenon, focusing on strengthening skills (e.g., academic writing) in particular. There was an environmental and systemic dimension to the imposter phenomenon, perhaps more prevalent among women in STEM. The academy could devise ways to better support scholars who experience this phenomenon. Recommendation for Researchers: Research characterizing the qualitative characteristics of the impostor phenomenon across the STEM pipeline (undergrads, PhD students, postdocs, and faculty) would help understand if the reasons and manifestations of this phenomenon vary among differing demographics of students and professionals. Impact on Society: Organizations could focus on the training, development, mental health, and stressors among postdocs in STEM, particularly by focusing on career transition points (e.g., PhD to postdoc transition, postdoc to faculty transition), especially for those at-risk of experiencing this phenomenon and therefore dropping out. Future Research: Future research could examine how to manage or overcome the impostor phenomenon for students and professionals, focus on disciplines outside STEM, and investigate how socialization opportunities may be compromised due to this phenomenon. Longitudinal studies might characterize the phenomenon better than those that focused on the impostor phenomenon at a single time-point.

PhD Student Experiences with the Impostor Phenomenon in STEM

Aim/Purpose: This US-based study explored various facets of impostor phenomenon experienced during PhD training in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Specifically, the purpose of this research was to identify certain experiences that trigger this phenomenon. Background: Competent high-achievers who do not believe in their efforts leading to accomplishments sometimes experience the impostor phenomenon. It is characterized by the notion that one has fooled others into overestimating their ability, not attributing one’s accomplishments to ability, and living with the fear of being discovered as a fraud. Methodology: Data were collected using convenience and snowball sampling. Qualitative, semi-structured interviews from 90 PhD students were analyzed thematically. Contribution: Study findings contribute to a less-understood area of what constitutes triggers for the impostor phenomenon among PhD students in STEM fields. Findings: Participants described the following themes that triggered impostor phenomenon during PhD training: 1) Progress and public recognition, 2) Comparing oneself with others, 3) Developing skills: public speaking and scientific writing. 4) Application of new knowledge, and 5) Asking for help. Recommendations for Practitioners: PhD faculty, mentors, advisers, and administrators should be cognizant of the triggers that could give rise to the impostor phenomenon among their students. Professional development activities for students could focus on earlier and more rigorous training for improving scientific communication. Recommendation for Researchers: Future research should continue to explore if other stakeholders in academia such as postdoctoral trainees and faculty also experience similar stress due to the impostor phenomenon. Impact on Society: Institutes of higher education should continue to focus on improving student mental health and retention rates, alleviating some of the PhD training stressors by designing interventions that improve students’ mindset and self-efficacy. Future Research: Findings point to avenues for further research on how to support those with impostor phenomenon. Future research could explore the topic in other disciplines outside STEM and examine if long-term interventions could mitigate impostor-feelings, including the nature and length of interventions that could be helpful.