Decoding ‘Unnecessary Complexity’: A Law of Complexity and a Concept of Hidden Variation Behind “Missing Heritability” in Precision Medicine

The high hopes for the Human Genome Project and personalized medicine were not met because the relationship between genotypes and phenotypes turned out to be more complex than expected. In a previous study we laid the foundation of a theory of complexity and showed that because of the blind nature of evolution, and molecular and historical contingency, cells have accumulated unnecessary complexity, complexity beyond what is necessary and sufficient to describe an organism. Here we provide empirical evidence and show that unnecessary complexity has become integrated into the genome in the form of redundancy and is relevant to molecular evolution of phenotypic complexity. Unnecessary complexity creates uncertainty between molecular and phenotypic complexity, such that phenotypic complexity (CP) is higher than molecular complexity (CM), which is higher than DNA complexity (CD). The qualitative inequality in complexity is based on the following hierarchy: CP > CM > CD. This law-like relationship holds true for all complex traits, including complex diseases. We present a hypothesis of two types of variation, namely open and closed (hidden) systems, show that hidden variation provides a hitherto undiscovered “third source” of phenotypic variation, beside genotype and environment, and argue that “missing heritability” for some complex diseases is likely to be a case of “diluted heritability”. There is a need for radically new ways of thinking about the principles of genotype–phenotype relationship. Understanding how cells use hidden, pathway variation to respond to stress can shed light on why two individuals who share the same risk factors may not develop the same disease, or how cancer cells escape death.

Development of an innovative methodology of research of systems on an example of a shadow economy as an invariant of system of economic security of state

The object of research is the shadow economy as structural component (invariant) of economic security of state on example of Ukraine. The level of shadowing of Ukrainian economy requires improvement of both: the system of indicators and mechanism of influence on the level of shadowing on the basis of using of fundamental constants of mathematics of harmony and principle of structural harmony of systems. Under research, fundamental provisions and methods of the theory of safety studies, economic theory, theories of systems and structural harmony of systems, institutionalism, transdisciplinary nature were used. The theme of management of the system of economic security of the state is investigated from various scientific positions of classical science. At the same time, practically ignores the theory of synergetic, which is the synthesis of transdisciplinary approach, price approach, classical theory of systems, structural harmony of systems, theory of fractals and attractors and other components of theory of complexity. Obviously, any system has metric characteristics inherent. The most widespread math constant found in nature is the Phidias number (Golden section). Meаsure is the most important component of all and any knowledge, without it any description of processes and phenomena will be incorrect. The law of measures, or the law of proportional distribution with its derivatives can be defined as law of projecting and organizing sustainable systems at all levels of hierarchical management. The structure of the system is the most conservative characteristic of it as opposed to the state of the system. The properties of the system as a whole are determined not only the properties of its individual elements, but also the properties of the structure of the system as whole. They depend on the existence of the system. The existence of the system retains these parameters in the process of adapting the system to external conditions and thus maintains the existence of the system itself. Matching the metric quality system of economic security of the state and obtaining a conclusion on its stability and abilities to self-organization under the conditions of shadowing of the economy can be carried out by comparison. It is carried out using attractors representing a recurrent number of gold sections: 0.500 ...; 0.618 ...; 0.682 ...; 0.725, as well as – distractors: 0.5698 ...; 0.6540 ...; 0.7053. An integral indicator characterizing the state of any system is the relative information entropy by Shannon. Entropy testing of the system (calculation of relative information entropy) is a logical component of the innovative model of system research.

Recent Developments in Complexity in Economics

This research review identifies fundamental essays on the theory of complexity and its application in economics. The concept of complexity is linked to that of non-linearity, or rather of heterogeneity and interaction between agents. If a system is non-linear it cannot be broken down. When there is interaction, the total is not the sum of single causes, but rather the emergence of new facts. New properties appear that are not already present in the single elements. If the economic system is complex, mainstream economics is in a cul-de-sac where the macroeconomics is different from the microeconomics. The uncertain future and the agent-based models are the main tools for applying the theory of complexity.

Perspective of nursing students about active learning and insertion in the job market

ABSTRACT Objective: to understand the perception of alumni from a nursing course which uses active learning methods about their insertion in the job market. Methods: descriptive and exploratory study with a qualitative approach, carried out through 17 interviews with alumni from 2012 and 2014. The analysis took place using Dialectic Hermeneutics, as subsidized by the theoretical framework of the Theory of Complexity. Results: the statements of the alumni showed aspects related to safety to act in the job market, to stimulating proactivity and initiative for learning as proposed by the active method, to difficulties in teamwork, and to the lack of experience in certain specialized fields. Final Considerations: there are advances and challenges marked by contradictions in the way the alumni act and think as they enter the job market, which is an inherent condition to processes of change, from the perspective of complex thinking.

Science in the modern world: from value to complexity

The paper focuses on the problem of actualizing the role of science as a complex system in the prospects of development of society and man. The development of science is shown to have led to the formation and assertion of information and digital reality. It has accelerated the pace of globalization in all spheres of life— from obtaining information to knowledge, from the expansion of visual communication to stimulating the movement of people, technology and finance. At the same time, the introduction of scientific innovations deepens the polarization of countries, continents and regions in terms of technological potential. The growing complexity of the modern world can be realized by appropriate complex thinking. The paper has revealed the main stages of formation of a new type of personality capable of understanding the complex world, independent decision-making, in the process of cognition and freedom of behavior in a situation of radical transformation of values of science and culture. The dynamics of changes in science, technology, socio-cultural and economic life is determined as well. This situation gives rise to a new “reflective society”, corresponding to the initial levels of information theory of complexity, in the context of which human activity becomes non-linear, innovative and chaotic. It is emphasized that understanding the dynamics of a complex world and its systems stimulates the emergence of new approaches in management theory. In their context, the task of forming complex thinking is set, the ways of its active introduction into the culture of scientific knowledge and learning are determined.

Information Mediation and Its Role in the Development of Complex Societies

Mediation has a fundamental role in the development of complex societies, since it interferes consciously or unconsciously in the way the subjects interact with and appropriate information. There are similarities between the theory of complexity and the conception of information adopted in this chapter; they are uncertainty and disorder. Both complexity and information are intertwined with these factors. Information, much more than satisfying a need or filling an information gap, raises new doubts and generates new information conflicts. The information mediation, in turn, seeks, among other purposes, to resolve such conflicts and aims for the subject to appropriate the information. Therefore, mediation needs a more complex and holistic discussion, considering the different factors and elements linked and resulting from it.

Main stages of development of architectural science. Organization, methodology and updating of theoretical knowledge in the field of architecture and design

The paper focuses on research of the background and basic elements of complexity issue in architectural theory, and in the context of design practice. It also brings forth the question of introduction of complexity in didactic and education programs implemented in universities in architecture as a field of study. Paper contains critical analysis of limitations of traditional approach to architectural practice based mainly on intuition and confronts it with integrated design ideas. These ideas contribute to the development of wider application of the theory of complexity.

Macro-Trends in Brazilian Environmental Education: Some reflections based on Morin’s Theory of Complexity

Environmental Education in Brazil is a multi, inter and transdisciplinary field of knowledge. It presents different trends that change according to focus and speeches based on different epistemologies. There are different ways to concept and to practice Environmental Education on three macro-trends related to political pedagogical models: Conservative, Pragmatic and Critical. Then the objective of this paper is to think about macro-trends in Environmental Education since Complexity perspective. For it, we present the history of Environmental Education in Brazil, after three macro-trends and their more and less highlighted characteristics and finally we think about it. Environmental Education under Complexity perspective pays attention especially to socioenvironmental problems that incorporate multiple properties of reality and it allows to integrate characteristics of macro-tends that are fragmented.