The Concept of War in Ancient Mesopotamia: Reshaping Carl von Clausewitz's Trinity

In this article, the author investigates the concept of “war” during the Akkadian period (ca. 2234–2154 BCE) through fragments and clay tablets that have remained from that period in history more than 4,000 years ago. Given the special place that the divine realm took in the Akkadian worldview, manifesting even in everyday interaction, the author reworks the well-renowned trinity from the Prussian military theorist Carl von Clausewitz. The author argues that Clausewitz’s analysis of war, which relies on the main trinity of the people, the government, and the armed forces, is not applicable to the beginning of human history in Mesopotamia due to the specific circumstances that societies then faced. The main method of inquiry herein will be a textual analysis of Akkadian scriptures that relate to the campaigns of Sargon, the first ruler of the Akkadian Empire, and his reign in constituting the first empire of humankind, as well as sources that explain the role of religion in this historical epoch. Although many of Sargon’s groundbreaking military innovations—such as establishing a standing professional army, securing lines of communication and supplies, and fortifying strategic positions—can be analyzed in a purely descriptive way, the focus of this article will be on his constructed relation to the Akkadian pantheon, which had a direct influence on the way warmongering was perceived.

Garnisaires in France during the Napoleonic Wars: regulation of repressive measures for maintaining conscription

The Institution of garnisaires was intended for providing lodging to bystanders in the homes of residents in order to comply with the requirements of the government. In France of the early XIX century, it was implemented as a repressive measure to ensure conscription of the recalcitrant. The article describes the legal regulation of the institution of garnisaires in conducting conscription in France of the period of the Consulship and the First Empire. The object of this research is the Institution of garnisaires in the early XIX century; while the changes in legal regulation of this institution throughout the ruling of the First Consul and Emperor Napoleon I. The article employs the normative legal acts of the early XIX century: imperial decrees, governmental acts, executive orders and instructions of the officials of the central and local administration; as well as contextual analysis of legal acts, comparative-historical, and chronological methods. Taking into account that the topic of legal regulation of the institution of garnisaires is poorly covered, the article comprehensively analyzes the content of the fundamental legal acts, determines the peculiarities of stern measures applied for maintaining conscription at different stages of the reign of Napoleon I. The conclusion is made that the legal regulation of the institution of garnisaires during the indicated period has evolved from the first attempts to establish the practice of lodgment as repression, initially not implying specific restrictions, to introduction of more balanced and detailed regulation of the institution with a range of restrictive measures. The formation of legal framework of the institution was completed by 1807–1808 with issuing of the decrees of the Emperor and instructions of the Director General of Military Conscription Jean-Girard Lacuée.

Empire Style as a Model of the Embodiment of Patriarchal and Orthodox Ideas in European Culture and Music of the Restoration Era

The article is devoted to the consideration of the qualities of Napoleonic and Alexanderian empire as a “style of empire” and their manifestation in the musical and historical tradition of France and Russia in the first half of the XIX century. The typology of this style is directly associated with the essence of the concept of “empire” as a universal state, pursuing the goals of world domination or leadership and possessing a kind of cultural civilizational mission. For the French absolutism of the New Age and its imperial “hypostasis” in the XIX century, the emphasis on the enlightening and civilizing mission is indicative, while in the history of the Russian Empire, throughout all stages of its existence, the spiritual-messianic idea of understanding Russia as a guardian has been consistently upheld (as “Third Rome”) Orthodoxy inherited from Byzantium. The musical “signs” of the empire became those genre spheres in which the scale of design and ideas were combined with reliance on typical, universally significant means of musical expression, the genesis of which often goes back to the spiritual and religious tradition. The empirical qualities of French musical culture are considered in the example of the poetry of the musical theater of G. Spontini, summarizing the cultural and historical realities of France of the era of the first empire, while the choral polonaises of O. Kozlovsky, which absorbed the sacred genesis and typology of edging, anthem and polonaise, become a sign-symbol of the Alexanderian Empire and its associated imperial court culture.

Saint-Simon and Napoleon: the Emperor’s Personality and the Philosopher’s Worldview

The article analyses Saint-Simon’s ideas about the mechanism of transition to social reorganization, which he saw as the main content of his contemporary era. Starting with the Letters of Geneva Resident to Contemporaries in the plans of the philosopher a special, exclusive place was given to Napoleon. Saint-Simon expected to strike, attract with his ideas a new star who rose on a political sky­scraper. He judged from a belief in the linear, logical-defined course of history. Napoleon was present in the mind of the philosopher as a hero who overcame the negative consequences of the French Revolution, almost the only one able to comprehend easily innovative ideas concerning the transformation of society. In the initial version of Saint-Simon’s philosophy of history, he acts as a neces­sary element to cement the past with the future. In the time of the First Empire Saint-Simon’s admiration of Napoleon increases, along with his genius is glori­fied his invincibility as the greatest of people and his coming world conquest. Following this event, the theorist of socialism expects a genius to turn to the sci­ences and issues of reforming society in the way he predicted. He regarded the “Emperor’s Tribunal” as the highest, most authoritative instance to appeal to re­solve worldview collisions. The Restoration cardinally changes the philosopher’s attitude to Napoleon's personality. His role in history for socialist’s conscious­ness is no longer progressive, but rather conservative. But the general principle – the search for support for his projects from the head of state – is not rejected by Saint-Simon. Now he appeals to Louis XVIII and in general to European mon­archs. The bet on a peaceful way of moving to a new, fairer structure, dictated a series of attempts by the philosopher to build a dialogue with the representa­tives of power.

Napoleonic Era in the Historical Memory of Modern France: Anniversary as a Means of Commemorations

Jubilees as “rituals” of memory, reviving stable historical symbols in the consciousness of society, are endowed with the ability to bring the past closer to modern times, giving humanity a sense of stability in the present. In modern Europe, the problem of preserving images of the past has acquired a new sound in connection with migration processes, transforming the perception of jubilees of memorable dates in historical politics and in public consciousness. This process is most clearly observed in relation to the transformation of images of the Napoleonic era in French society. Two hundred years later, the symbols of the First Empire, becoming an integral part of the national consciousness and living memory of the French, gained relevance during the celebration of the 200th anniversary of the battles of Napoleon. The memory of the battles of the Napoleonic era in modern France passed from a “ceremonial” memory (battle as national pride) to a “metaphorical” (battle as a distant past that has no political connection with modern Europe). The “French jubilees” of the Napoleonic era demonstrated that interpreting the past can become an effective tool for implementing an integration project at the level of historical policy, but not the basis for European collective memory. Obviously, the general European installation on the victim memory leads to a completely reverse process — an aggravation of the sense of national identity.

Legislatywa we francuskich systemach konstytucyjnych pierwszej połowy XIX wieku

Legislation in French constitutional systems in the fi rst half of the 19th century after the fall of the First Empire The author attempted to present and compare the formal and legal position of the legislature in three successive constitutions that were passed in France in the fi rst half of the 19th century. The subject of the researcher’s exploration has consequently become the provisions of two Bourbon Constitutional Charters (proclaimed in 1814 and 1830 respectively) and the Republican Constitution passed by the French National Assembly in 1848. The choice of the subject of interest allowed the author to use a variety of methodological instruments, among which the most extensive ones were the exegesis of the normative text and legal comparisons. This made it possible to formulate numerous comments, assessments and opinions, at least some of which can be considered polemical or directly debatable, which the Author not only avoided, but was undoubtedly aware of. Die Legislative in den französischen verfassungsrechtlichen Systemen der ersten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts nach dem Fall des Ersten Kaiserreiches Der Autor versuchte in seinem Beitrag die formal-rechtliche Position der Legislative in den drei nacheinander folgenden Verfassungen, die in der ersten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts in Frankreich beschlossen wurden, zu schildern und zu vergleichen. Erforscht wurden daher die Bestimmungen zweier bourbonischer Charte constitutionnelle (erlassen entsprechend in den Jahren 1814 und 1830) und der republikanischen Verfassung, die durch die französische Nationalversammlung im Jahre 1848 angenommen wurde. Der gewählte Forschungsgegenstand ermöglichte dem Autor, unterschiedliche methodologische Instrumente zu nutzen, die breiteste Anwendung fanden die Exegese des normativen Textes und die rechtliche Komparatistik. Folglich konnten zahlreiche Bemerkungen, Beurteilungen und Ansichten formuliert werden, einige davon sind polemisch andere sogar diskutabel. Der Autor hat es nicht nur nicht gemieden, sondern das war seine bewusste Wahl der Aussagemittel.

The Kingdom of Akkad in Contact with the World

This chapter is dedicated to the external relationships of the Sargonic (Old Akkadian) polity, often described as the world’s first empire, and focuses primarily on military and diplomatic matters. The kings of this dynasty reigned over all of southern and northern Babylonia as well as patchworks of outposts, trade routes, and territory in neighboring Iran and Syria for approximately two and a half centuries, although their reach varied over time. The martial exploits of its rulers were remembered by later generations of Mesopotamian scribes and poets, who fictionalized them for their own purposes. This chapter eschews such information, focusing exclusively on the critical evaluation of contemporary sources. The Akkad polity was the first successful state of such a large size in Western Asia, with armies and organizational structures that were developed for maintaining strong, centralized control over its peripheries and the unruly central provinces, which were prone to revolt. Its armies were engaged in constant warfare, putting down native rebellions and venturing far and wide in search of booty and access to metals and stone, but often also engaged in defensive actions in Iran, contending with the expansive activities of the powerful state of Marhaši to the east.

Archipelago of Justice

An examination of France’s Atlantic and Indian Ocean empires through the stories of the little known people who built it. This book is a groundbreaking evaluation of the interwoven trajectories of the people, such as itinerant ship-workers and colonial magistrates, who built France’s first empire between 1680 and 1780 in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. These imperial subjects sought new political and legal influence via law courts, with strategies that reflected local and regional priorities, particularly regarding slavery, war, and trade. Laurie M. Wood focuses largely on appellate courts in Martinique and Île de France (now Mauritius) and shows how the courts appealed to French citizens owing to their strategic place at the center of the largest and most dynamic oceanic zones of trade during the early modern era. Through court records and legal documents, she reveals how the courts became liaisons between France and its new colonial possessions, and how subjects used the courtrooms as gateways to other courtrooms in the Atlantic, the Indian Ocean, and in France.