Humans can track but fail to predict accelerating objects

Objects in our visual environment often move unpredictably and can suddenly speed up or slow down. The ability to account for acceleration when interacting with moving objects can be critical for survival. Here, we investigate how human observers track an accelerating target with their eyes and predict its time of reappearance after a temporal occlusion by making an interceptive hand movement. Before occlusion, the target was initially visible and accelerated for a brief period. We tested how observers integrated target motion information by comparing three alternative models that predicted time-to-contact (TTC) based on the (1) final target velocity sample before occlusion, (2) average target velocity before occlusion, or (3) target acceleration. We show that visually-guided smooth pursuit eye movements reliably reflect target acceleration prior to occlusion. However, systematic saccade and manual interception timing errors reveal an inability to consider acceleration when predicting TTC. Interception timing is best described by the final velocity model that relies on extrapolating the last available velocity sample before occlusion. These findings provide compelling evidence for differential acceleration integration mechanisms in vision-guided eye movements and prediction-guided interception and a mechanistic explanation for the function and failure of interactions with accelerating objects.

Differences in expertise level for anticipatory skill between badminton ‘in game’ strokes and serves

Over the past decades, researchers in racquet sports have been testing the role of visual anticipation and expert attunement to essential kinematic information for responding to ‘in game’ strokes as well as serves. However, anticipatory behaviour to both strokes has not been compared directly, in spite of the different characteristics of these strokes in the context of badminton. Therefore, this study explored the differences in anticipatory behaviour among elite ( n = 26), competitive ( n = 15) and novices ( n = 17) between in game strokes and serves in badminton by use of lab based video temporal occlusion tests. In two separate blocks, last strokes (LS) and serves (S) were presented with different occlusion points (− 200 and − 100 ms before shuttle–racquet contact, at shuttle–racquet contact, and + 100 after shuttle–racquet contact) in a randomised order. The main results from the analysis of variance were that (a) elites generally showed faster and more accurate responses, and (b) responses were generally faster in LS conditions than in serves. These results add to the current body of knowledge on anticipatory behaviour in racquet sports, and the practical implications for coaching and training are discussed.

Reliability of Perceptual-Cognitive Skills in a Complex, Laboratory-Based Team-Sport Setting

The temporal occlusion paradigm is often used in anticipation and decision-making research in sports. Although it is considered as a valid measurement tool, evidence of its reproducibility is lacking but required for future cross-sectional and repeated-measures designs. Moreover, only a few studies on decision making in real-world environments exist. Here, we aimed at (a) implementing a temporal occlusion test with multi-dimensional motor response characteristics, and (b) assessing intra- and inter-session item reliability. Temporally occluded videos of attack sequences in a team handball scenario were created and combined with the SpeedCourt® contact plate system. Participants were instructed to perform pre-specified defensive actions in response to the video stimuli presented on a life-size projection screen. The intra- and inter-session (after at least 24 h) reproducibility of subjects’ motor responses were analyzed. Significant Cohen’s (0.44–0.54) and Fleiss’ (0.33–0.51) kappa statistics revealed moderate agreement of motor responses with the majority of attack situations in both intra- and inter-session analyses. Participants made faster choices with more visual information about the opponents’ unfolding action. Our findings indicate reliable decisions in a complex, near-game test environment for team handball players. The test provides a foundation for future temporal occlusion studies, including recommendations for new explanatory approaches in cognition research.

Perception and prediction of the putting distance of robot putting movements under different visual/viewing conditions

The purpose of this paper is to examine, whether and under which conditions humans are able to predict the putting distance of a robotic device. Based on the “flash-lag effect” (FLE) it was expected that the prediction errors increase with increasing putting velocity. Furthermore, we hypothesized that the predictions are more accurate and more confident if human observers operate under full vision (F-RCHB) compared to either temporal occlusion (I-RCHB) or spatial occlusion (invisible ball, F-RHC, or club, F-B). In two experiments, 48 video sequences of putt movements performed by a BioRob robot arm were presented to thirty-nine students (age: 24.49±3.20 years). In the experiments, video sequences included six putting distances (1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, and 4.0 m; experiment 1) under full versus incomplete vision (F-RCHB versus I-RCHB) and three putting distances (2. 0, 3.0, and 4.0 m; experiment 2) under the four visual conditions (F-RCHB, I-RCHB, F-RCH, and F-B). After the presentation of each video sequence, the participants estimated the putting distance on a scale from 0 to 6 m and provided their confidence of prediction on a 5-point scale. Both experiments show comparable results for the respective dependent variables (error and confidence measures). The participants consistently overestimated the putting distance under the full vision conditions; however, the experiments did not show a pattern that was consistent with the FLE. Under the temporal occlusion condition, a prediction was not possible; rather a random estimation pattern was found around the centre of the prediction scale (3 m). Spatial occlusion did not affect errors and confidence of prediction. The experiments indicate that temporal constraints seem to be more critical than spatial constraints. The FLE may not apply to distance prediction compared to location estimation.

Which cognitive and perceptual skills best discriminate elite female handball players

The purpose of this study was to identify which cognitive and perceptual skills best discriminate elite female handball players according to the age group to which they belong to. The sample consisted of 73 Portuguese national teams’ female handball players, aged between 11 and 29 years, with an average of 7.5 (± 3.7) years of practice. The following tests were applied: Thurstone Identical Figures Test, Toulouse-Piéron Concentrated Attention Test, and the Nideffer Attentional and Interpersonal Style Inventory to evaluate perceptual skills, the polyreactiometer for Windows – PRWin to evaluate information processing, and an evaluation protocol for precision in anticipation using the temporal occlusion paradigm. The interpretation of the obtained discriminant function was based on the structure of the coefficients greater than |0.30|. The Seniors’ age group is discriminated from that of Talents by their better reaction, perception, and attention times, namely, by the ability to integrate several stimuli simultaneously and by a better capacity to anticipate future events more accurately. This discriminating model can help coaches recruit players as well as improve psychological training programmes.

Utilizing Video-Based Trainings to Improve Decision Making in High School Quarterbacks

Despite the role of working memory capacity (WMC) in decision making, there is a dearth of empirical literature concerned with working memory and how it relates to tactical decision making in sport. The temporal occlusion paradigm has often been used by sport researchers to improve tactical decision making and, thus, provides a well-established foundation for creating decision-making trainings. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to explore the implementation of computer-based learning modules to improve the tactical decision making of four high school quarterbacks with varying levels of WMC, utilizing a single-subject, multiple baseline design. The learning modules utilized a temporal occlusion paradigm and present a novel intervention aimed at improving decision making in quarterbacks. Data were analyzed using visual analysis and improvement rate difference (IRD). Overall, results did not demonstrate a causal relationship between changes in accuracy of decision making after implementation of the learning modules but did provide moderate evidence for improvement in reaction time for decision making due to the learning modules. The learning modules were met with positive perceptions from the four participants, and the participant with the lowest WMC showed evidence of improvement in both accuracy and speed of decision making. Limitations as well as implications will be discussed.

Use of Pitcher Game Footage to Measure Visual Anticipation and Its Relationship to Baseball Batting Statistics

Professional baseball batters’ (N = 105) visual anticipation of pitch type and location were measured using a video-based temporal occlusion test and correlated with their baseball batting statistics. Participants watched in-game footage of skilled baseball pitchers that was temporally occluded at the point of ball release, and at 80 ms and 200 ms after ball release. Participants made written predictions of pitch type and location. Results indicated there was a significant positive correlation between anticipation of combined pitch type and location 80 ms after ball release with slugging percentage (r = .21). There was a significant negative correlation between anticipation of pitch type alone 200 ms after ball release and strikeouts (r = −.28), indicating higher prediction is associated with fewer incorrect swing choices. Furthermore, there was a significant positive correlation between anticipation of pitch type alone 200 ms after ball release and on-base percentage (r = .23) as well as walk-to-strikeout ratio (r = .25). These small relationships are consistent to the batting statistics we predicted and can be due to the range of competitive levels in the leagues the participants had played. The findings further theoretical and applied knowledge of the role visual anticipation contributes to baseball batting game performance. The findings also suggest that game footage can be used to assess and potentially to train visual anticipation skill, which is highly valuable for athletes and high performance support staff in sporting organizations.