The Impact of Rural Livelihood Diversification on Household Poverty: Evidence from Jimma Zone, Oromia National Regional State, Southwest Ethiopia

In Ethiopia, agriculture is the principal source of food and livelihood for many rural households, making it a central component of programs that seek to reduce poverty and achieve food security. Since the sector is faced with many challenges, rural households are compelled to develop strategies through diversification to cope with the increasing vulnerability associated with agricultural production. As a result, the purpose of this research is to assess the impact of livelihood diversification on household poverty in the Jimma zone of Ethiopia’s Oromia regional state. A multistage sampling procedure was employed to select 385 sample household heads. The study utilized data obtained from a cross-sectional survey using an interview schedule, focus group discussion, key informant interview, and personal observations. Both descriptive and econometric data analysis techniques were applied. The result of the FGT poverty measure revealed that the incidence of poverty among rural households was 37.14%, implying that 62.86% were non-poor. The descriptive statistics revealed that age of household, dependency ratio, year of schooling, sex of household, livestock ownership, landholding, non-farm income, market distance, and extension contact were found to have a significant influence on the poverty status of a household at different probability levels. Based on the cost of basic needs approach, it was applied to measure poverty status. The results of the logit model indicate that family size, landholding, livestock ownership, year of schooling, access to credit services, and off-farm income of the households were found to have significantly determined livelihood diversification. Moreover, the results of the propensity score matching indicate that household participation in livelihood diversification has a positive and significant impact on household poverty. Accordingly, households with diversified livelihoods were found to be 9% better off than those that were not diversified in terms of poverty. Policies aimed at increasing the income generation ability of the household should be strongly considered. Therefore, to ensure the capacity of rural households to practice farming along with a wide range of income-generating activities to improve the well-being of the rural poor and have a significant impact on poverty reduction, participating in livelihood diversification should be given emphasis in development planning.

Applying livestock thresholds to examine poverty in Karamoja

In pastoralist and agro-pastoralist areas, wealth and poverty are closely aligned to levels of livestock ownership and social inclusion. Whereas cash income per capita is a useful measure of poverty in non-pastoralist areas, measures of livestock ownership per capita are needed to understand poverty in pastoralist systems. This study estimated a livestock threshold for agro-pastoralist households in Karamoja, being the minimum per capita ownership of livestock needed to sustain a predominantly agro-pastoral livelihood. The study then applied the livestock threshold to pre-existing livestock population data to estimate the proportions of households above and below the threshold. Using an estimated livestock threshold of 3.3 Tropical Livestock Units (TLU)/capita for agro-pastoralism, 56.5% of households in Karamoja’s main livestock-keeping districts were below the threshold and could be categorized as livestock-poor. The ownership of livestock was skewed in two main ways. First, there was a high-end skew with the wealthiest 30% of households owning 69.3% of all livestock in terms of TLU. Second, there was a low-end skew. Among poorer households, below the 3.3 TLU/capita livestock threshold, livestock ownership was skewed away from the threshold. Forty-seven per cent of these households owned only 1.2 TLU/capita or less; 13% of households owned no livestock at all. These findings are discussed, with programming and policy recommendations.

Climate, Cultivation, and Household Income

Maps, figures, and tables present data on rainfall trends and distribution in this Sahelian setting, demonstrating the high level of variability within and between years. The pattern of soils, vegetation and water are described and how these provide the basis for the economy of village and household. Land use, crop choice, and livestock ownership are discussed alongside ownership of other productive assets, such as wells, plough-teams, and donkey-carts. Overall production of the main crop, millet, is described and its allocation to a range of purposes, with a picture of how many days of grain are available from the harvest for different households. Household income and expenditure are shown, the principal sources of income, and cash expenditure by category of purpose, such as purchase of livestock, marriage costs and payment of taxes. It is shown that size of income is partly a function of household size, but also the result of special circumstances, such as whether a marriage is in preparation, or a new ox needs to be bought.

Association of Livestock Ownership and Household Dietary Quality: Results from a Cross-Sectional Survey from Rural India

Studies from India and several eastern African countries found that the impact of dairy animal ownership on household nutrition varied greatly, depending on the socio-geographic context. The purpose of this study was to examine the association between livestock ownership and household dietary quality in rural Kolar district, India. We collected data from a household survey in four study villages (n = all 195 households of the four villages) of Kolar district, applying a cross-sectional design. Kendall’s rank correlation coefficient was employed to determine the correlation between milk consumption and other dietary variables. Multivariable logistic regression was used to describe the relationship between dairy animal ownership and household milk consumption. Households owning dairy animals more often had access to irrigation (58.3% vs. 25.2%) and were less often woman-headed (2.4% vs. 22.5%). Household milk consumption was significantly correlated with consumption of vegetable variety, egg, and meat (all p-values < 0.05). After adjusting for multiple confounders, the odds ratio of milk consumption between dairy animal-owning households as compared to other households was 2.11 (95% confidence interval 0.85, 5.45). While dairy animal ownership was found to be associated with improved dietary quality, larger households were in a better position to adopt dairy animals, which, in turn, might contribute to better household nutrition.

Profiles and Characteristics of Balinese Cattle Breeders In The Covid-19 Era In The Village of Ayunan Badung, Bali

They researched the profiles and characteristics of Bali Cattle Farmers in the Covid-19 Era in the Village of Ayunan Badung Bali to know the characteristics and profiles of Balinese cattle breeders in Ayunan Village during the Covid-19 pandemic. The methods used are survey methods using primary data and secondary data. Sampling is carried out by purposive sampling questionnaire on 40 Balinese cattle breeders in the village of Ayunan and have experience raising cattle for more than three years. The study results were 77.5% of respondent breeders were in the productive age range, and 22.5% were in the age range above 64 years. Young and fertile breeders generally have a high education level, so they tend to adopt innovations and technologies more quickly. The experience of raising respondents for 21 years to 30 years is as much (35%). Long enough farming experience indicates that the respondent breeders have adequate knowledge and skills in cattle raising. Respondents' education is 2.5% not having a formal education, 25% having an elementary education, 12.5% having a junior high school education and 50% having a high school education, and 10% having tertiary education. Farmers' education level tends to influence their thinking power and acceptance of innovations and technologies. The average number of respondents' livestock ownership is 2.6 heads, caused by several factors, including the limited forage or 20% of feed, due to the determinate business capital factor 42.5% and cultivated as a side business of 37.5%. The majority of respondent breeders have their primary job as farmers/farm laborers 60%, only 5% of respondent breeders have the main job as breeders. In comparison, 35% of respondents have jobs as retirees, construction workers, laborers, agricultural extension workers, and traders. In general, cattle breeders in Bali raising cattle is a part-time job. Conclusions, profiles, and characteristics of Balinese cattle breeders in Ayunan Village, seen from the age of the breeders, have the highest percentage (62.5%) at the age of 51-64 and are classified as productive. 35% experience in farming (21-30) years, most of the education level is high school graduates (50%), average livestock ownership is 2.66 tails, the low number of livestock ownership is due to business capital 42.5% and the main occupation of respondents is 60% the farmer

Prevalence and Correlates of Cryptosporidium Infections in Kenyan Children With Diarrhea and Their Primary Caregivers

Background Cryptosporidium is a leading cause of diarrhea in Sub-Saharan Africa and is associated with substantial morbidity and mortality in young children. Methods We analyzed data from children aged 6–71 months presenting to 2 public hospitals in Western Kenya with acute diarrhea and their primary caregivers, including detection of Cryptosporidium by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and immunoassay analysis in stool samples from both children and their caregivers. Associations between potential transmission sources and child/caregiver Cryptosporidium infection were evaluated using prevalence ratios (PRs). Secondary analyses evaluated host and clinical risk factors of child/caregiver Cryptosporidium infection. Results Among 243 child–caregiver pairs enrolled, 77 children (32%) and 57 caregivers (23%) had Cryptosporidium identified by either immunoassay or PCR. Twenty-six of the 243 child–caregiver pairs (11%) had concordant detection of Cryptosporidium. Cryptosporidium infection in children was associated with detection of Cryptosporidium in caregivers (adjusted PR [aPR], 1.8; 95% CI, 1.2 to 2.6; P = .002) and unprotected water source (aPR, 2.0; 95% CI, 1.3 to 3.2; P = .003). Risk factors for Cryptosporidium detection in caregivers included child Cryptosporidium infection (aPR, 2.0; 95% CI, 1.3 to 3.0; P = .002) as well as cow (aPR, 3.1; 95% CI, 1.4 to 7.0; P = .02) and other livestock ownership (aPR, 2.6; 95% CI, 1.1 to 6.3; P = .03) vs no livestock ownership. Recent diarrhea in caregivers and children was independently associated with child and caregiver Cryptosporidium infections, respectively. Conclusions Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that Cryptosporidium transmission can occur directly between child–caregiver dyads as well as through other pathways involving water and livestock. Additional research into caregivers as a source of childhood Cryptosporidium infection is warranted.

The Mismeasurement of Cattle Ownership In Namibia's Northern Communal Areas

The standard approach to measuring livestock ownership in pastoralist communities relies on an assumption of uniformity that does not reflect the diverse concepts of ownership held by pastoralists themselves. In Namibia's Koakaveld Region, Himba and Herero pastoralist communities have a rich vocabulary for categorising the origins, usage rights and cultural valence of their cattle. Drawing on both authors' experience overseeing a large-scale rangeland management programme evaluation in Namibia's Northern Communal Areas – and one author's experience growing up in and keeping cattle in a Himba pastoralist community – we show how the standard approach to measuring cattle ownership undermines accurate estimates of livestock wealth, off-take and inequality, and obfuscates pastoralist's strategies for turning ecological variability to their advantage. We conclude with lessons about how multi-dimensional data collection methods improve upon the standard approach to livestock ownership measurements.

Livestock ownership and anaemia in Sub-Saharan African households

Objective: To determine the association between livestock ownership and Hb concentration of women of child-bearing age (WCBA) and preschool-aged children in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Design: A prospective analysis of publicly available cross-sectional data, using linear and logistic regressions controlling for potential confounders. Setting: Twenty-eight countries in SSA. Participants: 162 305 WCBA and 118 607 children aged 6–59 months. Results: More than half of WCBA (62·5 %) and children (58 %) belonged to households that owned livestock. The average altitude-adjusted blood Hb concentration for WCBA and children was 12.23 and 10·24 g/dL, respectively. In adjusted models, higher number of livestock owned was associated with lower Hb concentration for children but not for WCBA. The magnitude of the association for children was small, with one additional unit of livestock owned reducing Hb concentration by 0·001 g/dL. Higher numbers of cattle, cows and bulls, sheep, and goats were associated with lower Hb concentration for both groups. The number of certain categories of livestock owned was associated with the consumption of relevant foods by children. There was no association between the consumption of animal-source foods and Hb concentration or between livestock ownership and diarrhoeal diseases or fever among children. Conclusions: Livestock ownership in SSA had a net negative association with the Hb concentration of children and no association with that of WCBA. The results highlight the need for research aimed at clarifying the mechanisms linking livestock ownership and nutritional status, and identifying entry points for leveraging livestock ownership to improve the health of women and children in SSA.