Systematic Map of Human–Raptor Interaction and Coexistence Research

Global raptor conservation relies on humans to establish and improve interaction and coexistence. Human–wildlife interaction research is well-established, but tends to focus on large-bodied, terrestrial mammals. The scope and characteristics of research that explores human–raptor interactions are relatively unknown. As an initial step toward quantifying and characterizing the state of applied, cross-disciplinary literature on human–raptor interactions, we use established systematic map (scoping reviews) protocols to catalog literature and describe trends, identify gaps and biases, and critically reflect on the scope of research. We focus on the peer-reviewed (refereed) literature germane to human–raptor interaction, conflict, tolerance, acceptance, persecution and coexistence. Based on 383 papers retrieved that fit our criteria, we identified trends, biases, and gaps. These include a majority of research taking place within North America and Europe; disproportionately few interdisciplinary and social research studies; interactions focused on indirect anthropogenic mortality; and vague calls for human behavior changes, with few concrete steps suggested, when management objectives are discussed. Overall, we note a predominant focus on the study of ecological effects from human–raptor interactions rather than sociocultural causes, and suggest (as others have in various conservation contexts) the imperative of human behavioral, cultural, and political inquiry to conserve raptor species.

Systematic map of human-raptor interaction and coexistence research

Global raptor conservation relies on humans to establish and improve interaction and coexistence with raptor species. Human-wildlife interaction research is well-established, but tends to focus on large-bodied, terrestrial mammals. The scope and characteristics of research that explores human-raptor interactions is relatively unknown. As an initial step toward quantifying and characterizing the state of applied, cross-disciplinary literature in human-raptor interactions, we use established systematic map protocols to catalog the literature and describe trends, identify gaps and biases, and critically reflect on the state of the literature. We focus on peer-reviewed literature germane to human-raptor interaction, conflict, tolerance, acceptance, and coexistence. Based on the 383 papers retrieved from the literature that fit our criteria, we identified trends, biases, and gaps. These include a majority of research taking place within North America and Europe; disproportionately few interdisciplinary and social research studies; interactions focused on indirect anthropogenic mortality (poisons and wind turbine collisions); and vague calls for human behavior changes, with few concrete steps suggested, when management objectives are discussed. Overall, we note a predominant focus on the study of ecological effects from human-raptor interactions rather than sociocultural causes and suggest (as others have in various conservation contexts) the imperative of human behavioral, cultural, and political inquiry to conserve raptor species.

Parasites, Bacteria, and Associated Pathological Changes in the Digestive System of Diurnal and Nocturnal Raptors in Central Italy

The knowledge of raptor pathogens and associated lesions may be extremely important to enhancing raptor conservation efforts and reducing pathogen spillover to humans and domesticated animals and vice versa. Parasite infections of the digestive system and associated bacteria and pathological changes were evaluated in deceased diurnal and nocturnal raptors in central Italy. Overall, the prevalence of parasites (nematodes, cestodes, trematodes, acanthocephalans, and protozoa) identified in the examined birds was 72.41%, and most of the positive raptors (71.42%) showed multiple parasite infections. Among bacteria, Salmonella typhimurium, Salmonella enterica subspecies diarizonae, Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens, Yersinia enterocolitica, and Pasteurella multocida were identified. The results obtained showed that both parasites and bacteria may cause severe lesions in the digestive system of diurnal and nocturnal raptors; parasites and bacteria may concur in causing these lesions; most severe lesions are caused by the interaction of multiple pathogens, both parasites and bacteria; and the same pathogen taxa are frequently associated with the same pathological changes. This study is the first report of S. typhimurium and S. enterica subspecies diarizonae in Buteo buteo, while Andracantha mergi, Spirocerca spp., Sarcocystis dispersa, Sarcocystis columbae, and Eumonospora spp. were recorded for the first time in Italy.

Prioritizing strain insulators for raptor conservation

Summary Avian species often take advantage of human-made structures, such as perching on power poles, although this can lead to negative effects for both birds and infrastructure. It has been demonstrated that anchor-type pylons, with strain insulators, are amongst the most dangerous of these structures. Our goal was to develop a methodological approach to evaluate the ways in which raptors perch on the six most commonly used strain insulator configurations in Spain, and to build a risk index that can be used to prioritise them. To study the ways raptors perch, we worked with six wildlife rescue centres in central Spain for almost a year assessing these six strain insulator configurations in 83 perch trials with 176 raptors in ample flying pens. We analysed 475 complete survey days, with an approximate number of 258,960 analysed pictures, including 6,766 perchings on strain insulators. We assessed the influential factors for these 6,766 perchings and developed a novel approach to prioritise strain insulator configurations that can be used anywhere. Our results suggest that longer insulator strains (i.e. PECA-1000 and Caon-C3670) are the safest, according to our prioritization criteria, although these results require further assessment in the field. Managers and conservationists should take into account these results to improve management and conservation actions.

Parrot Free-Flight as a Conservation Tool

The release of captive-raised parrots to create or supplement wild populations has been critiqued due to variable survival rates and unreliable flocking behavior. Private bird owners free-fly their parrots in outdoor environments and utilize techniques that could address the needs of conservation breed and release projects. We present methods and results of a free-flight training technique used for 3 parrot flocks: A large-bodied (8 macaws of 3 species and 2 hybrids), small-bodied (25 individuals of 4 species), and a Sun Parakeet flock (4 individuals of 1 species). Obtained as chicks, the birds were hand-reared in an enriched environment. As juveniles, the birds were systematically exposed to increasingly complex wildland environments, mirroring the learning process of wild birds developing skills. The criteria we evaluated for each flock were predation rates, antipredator behavior, landscape navigation, and foraging. No parrots were lost to predation or disorientation during over 500 months of free-flight time, and all birds demonstrated effective flocking, desirable landscape navigation, and wild food usage. The authors conclude that this free-flight method may be directly applicable for conservation releases, similar to the use of falconry methods for raptor conservation.

Emerging Patterns in Cultural Ecosystem Services as Incentives and Obstacles for Raptor Conservation

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment proposed four categories of ecosystem services as regulating, provisioning, supporting and cultural. Of these, cultural services have been the most difficult to quantify despite playing a key role in developing society’s supporting services to ecosystems. By reviewing a series of case studies related to the cultural services derived from raptors, we examine relations between tangible ecosystem services and ‘knowledge’ and ‘beliefs’ as part of supporting services from human societies to ecosystems. We identified types of raptor regulating and provisioning services and patterns in service--knowledge-beliefs that defined positive or negative outcomes for raptor conservation. We also demonstrate how possible interactions between physical, experiential, physical-symbolic and representative-symbolic cultural services and between different stakeholders can create incentives or obstacles for conservation. Predictable patterns in service-knowledge-beliefs provide a framework upon which socio-cultural and ethnobiological aspects of raptor conservation may be combined with ecological research to support conservation initiatives. Based on these patterns we present examples of how cultural services might be employed to better promote raptor conservation while respecting the beliefs and traditions of stakeholders.

Diversity of Diurnal Raptors in a Suburban Area of a City in Southern Chile

Raptor conservation programs should be based on knowledge of the birds’ ecology in both natural and urban habitats, justifying the inclusion of ecological studies in suburban zones into regional planning initiatives. The objectives of this study were (a) to determine the use by diurnal raptors of the habitat in a suburban area of a city in southern Chile, and (b) to characterize the different zones into five types of environment, and assess their raptor diversity for consideration in territorial planning. Acoustic surveys were conducted in auditory stations in addition to observations from fixed transects and trails. From a total of 161.39 hours of census, we obtained 664 sightings corresponding to ten species of diurnal raptors. The richest environment was dense forest (eight species), followed by grassland (six species), native forest regeneration (five species), shrubs (four species) and exotic tree plantations (three species). We discuss the relationship between the richness of diurnal raptors, the types of environment in the study area, and the spatial location of the sites, as well as the implications for territorial planning to support the conservation of birds of prey in the suburban zone studied.

Living in the concrete jungle: a review and socio-ecological perspective of urban raptor habitat quality in Europe

Raptors can be important components of urban ecosystems due to their role as apex predators, the presence of which may bring benefits to people. Urban environments may provide good quality habitats, and the raptors’ ability to utilize resources found here can contribute to their success. However, urban environments are socio-ecological systems and such mechanisms shaping habitats and ecological resources therein are less understood. This paper explores how raptors utilize urban resources, and the socio-ecological processes influencing their quality and availability. It begins with a systematic mapping of the literature to summarize the utility of urban resources by raptors with European distributions. Eighteen species were documented in the literature successfully exploiting novel hunting and/or nesting opportunities in both green and built-up locations of urban areas. We discuss how these may be consequential of human activities, some of which intentionally provided as subsidies, and how their utility by raptors create opportunities for human-raptor interactions further shaping public perception and decisions which potentially affect the raptors. Finally, we demonstrate these concepts by drawing on our experience from an urban peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) conservation site in London, UK. The paper concludes with a call for urban raptor conservation and research to consider social and ecological aspects together, appropriately reflecting urban environments as socio-ecological systems.

Stakeholder perspectives on raptor conservation and falconry in North America

Global raptor conservation depends on non-profit and non-governmental organizations and, fundamentally, members of those organizations. While an organization may have a central mission, internally, its membership can be diverse. This can pose a challenge to a member-driven organization to implement programming and advocacy that reflects its membership’s preference and likelihood of supporting those programs. Systematic assessment of members’ opinions and preferences is needed to assure alignment with the organization’s actions. Using the North American Falconers Association (NAFA) as a case study, preferences and opinions on issues related to raptor conservation were assessed. Based on species, habitat, management, and policy topic areas, results indicate participants define conservation as encompassing both habitat and species. Consensus habitat issues were threats to prairies, sage, and wetlands. Perceived declines in native game bird, waterfowl, and small game mammals were the most salient threats to wildlife. Tied to these concerns of habitat and species was access to land to practice falconry. Overall, participants prefer that organizational resources are used to support habitat conservation and facilitate falconers’ access to those habitats. For non-governmental conservation organizations, systematic membership surveys can provide substantial insight for decision-making and effective allocation of membership-derived resources. Member surveys also signal an organizations willingness to listen to its constituents and act upon their views and local knowledge to coordinate conservation action.