Is Einkorn Wheat (Triticum monococcum L.) a Better Choice than Winter Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)? Wheat Quality Estimation for Sustainable Agriculture Using Vision-Based Digital Image Analysis

Einkorn wheat (Triticum monococcum L. ssp. monococcum) plays an increasingly important role in agriculture, promoted by organic farming. Although the number of comparative studies about modern and ancient types of wheats is increasing, there are still some knowledge gaps about the nutritional and health benefit differences between ancient and modern bread wheats. The aim of the present study was to compare ancient, traditional and modern wheat cultivars—including a field study and a laboratory stress experiment using vision-based digital image analysis—and to assess the feasibility of imaging techniques. Our study shows that modern winter wheat had better yield and grain quality compared to einkorn wheats, but the latter were not far behind; thus the cultivation of various species could provide a diverse and sustainable agriculture which contributes to higher agrobiodiversity. The results also demonstrate that digital image analysis could be a viable alternate method for the real-time estimation of aboveground biomass and for predicting yield and grain quality parameters. Digital area outperformed other digital variables in biomass prediction in relation to drought stress, but height and Feret’s diameter better correlated with yield and grain quality parameters. Based on these results we suggest that the combination of various vision-based methods could improve the performance estimation of modern and ancient types of wheat in a non-destructive and real-time manner.

Analysis of macro- and Microminerals Content in the Einkorn (Triticum monococcum L.) Samples Cultivated in Kastamonu, Turkey

Wheat is an important cereal product because of its nutritional value, economy, culture, and history. Einkorn (Triticum monococcum L.) assumed as the oldest wheat. Einkorn locally called “siyez” has recently become popular as a super grain with the thought of being very nutritious in Turkey. In this study, the contents of macrominerals (Na, Mg, Ca, and K) and microminerals (Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn) in twenty-one einkorn samples collected from different cultivation areas in Kastamonu were determined by using an inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry following microwave-assisted acid digestion. The results were compared with those analyzed in einkorn and other wheat types in the literature. Average concentrations of K, Ca, Mg, Na, Fe, Zn, Mn, Cr and Cu analyzed in einkorn samples were found as 3712, 1303, 656, 53, 167, 34, 29, 0,7 and 0,6 mg kg-1, respectively. The literature comparison revealed that the investigated einkorn samples were richer in terms of Ca and Fe contents compared to einkorn, emmer, spelt, buckwheat, and durum wheat samples grown in our country and different countries.

Genome-wide association study for morphological, phenological, quality, and yield traits in einkorn (Triticum monococcum L. subsp. monococcum)

Einkorn (Triticum monococcum L. subsp. monococcum, 2n = 2× = 14, AmAm) is a diploid wheat whose cultivation was widespread in the Mediterranean and European area till the Bronze Age, before it was replaced by the more productive durum and bread wheats. Although scarcely cultivated nowadays, it has gained renewed interest due to its relevant nutritional properties and as source of genetic diversity for crop breeding. However, the molecular basis of many traits of interest in einkorn remain still unknown. A panel of 160 einkorn landraces, from different parts of the distribution area, was characterized for several phenotypic traits related to morphology, phenology, quality, and yield for 4 years in two locations. An approach based on co-linearity with the A genome of bread wheat, supported also by that with Triticum urartu genome, was exploited to perform association mapping, even without an einkorn anchored genome. The association mapping approach uncovered numerous marker-trait associations; for 37 of these, a physical position was inferred by homology with the bread wheat genome. Moreover, numerous associated regions were also assigned to the available T. monococcum contigs. Among the intervals detected in this work, three overlapped with regions previously described as involved in the same trait, while four other regions were localized in proximity of loci previously described and presumably refer to the same gene/QTL. The remaining associated regions identified in this work could represent a novel and useful starting point for breeding approaches to improve the investigated traits in this neglected species.

Caracterization of Am –A genomes chromosomes in diploid wheat, polyploid wheat and triticales by marker cytogenetic

The distribution and Caracterization of constitutive heterochromatin in A-Am genomes of diploid wheat (progenitor), polyploid wheat (hybrids) and triticales (primary and secondary) are analyzed and compared by C-bands. The Comparison of zones rich in highly repeated DNA sequences marked by C bands on the all chromosomes of Am - A genomes revealed an important structural heterogeneity. Four chromosomes of Triticum monococcum (1Am-3Am-4Am-5Am) are almost similar to their homologues in wheat (Triticum durum , Triticum aestivum ) and triticale, by the presence or absence of C bands. Contrary to the chromosomes 2Am (rich in heterochromatin), 6Am-7Am (absence of C bands) show a great differentiation compared to their homologues of Triticum durum and Triticum aestivum and x-Triticosecale Wittmack. In the triticales, A genome chromosomes are richer in heterochromatin compared to theirs homologous of polyploid wheats. This is explained by a "genome shock The confrontation of C- bands genome (Triticum monococcum) with a C+ bands genome (durum wheat / or common wheat) produces an interspecific hybrid which at the sixth generation reveals C+ bands (triticales). The variations observed in our vegetal material indicated the existence of an intervarietal and interspecific heterochromatic polymorphism. The presence of B chromosomes in triticales, could be explained as a manifestation of their adaptation.

Identifying aphid resistance in the ancestral wheat Triticum monococcum under field conditions

Wheat is an economically, socially, and nutritionally important crop, however, aphid infestation can often reduce wheat yield through feeding and virus transmission. Through field phenotyping, we investigated aphid resistance in ancestral wheat Triticum monococcum (L.). Aphid (Rhopalosiphum padi (L.), Sitobion avenae (F.) and Metopolophium dirhodum (Wlk.)) populations and natural enemy presence (parasitised mummified aphids, ladybird adults and larvae and lacewing eggs and larvae) on two naturally susceptible wheat varieties, Triticum aestivum (L.) var. Solstice and T. monococcum MDR037, and three potentially resistant genotypes T. monococcum MDR657, MDR045 and MDR049 were monitored across three years of field trials. Triticum monococcum MDR045 and MDR049 had smaller aphid populations, whereas MDR657 showed no resistance. Overall, natural enemy presence was positively correlated with aphid populations; however, MDR049 had similar natural enemy presence to MDR037 which is susceptible to aphid infestation. It is hypothesised that alongside reducing aphid population growth, MDR049 also confers indirect resistance by attracting natural enemies. The observed resistance to aphids in MDR045 and MDR049 has strong potential for introgression into commercial wheat varieties, which could have an important role in Integrated Pest Management strategies to reduce aphid populations and virus transmission.

Mechanism of leaf rust resistance in wheat wild relatives, Triticum monococcum and T. boeoticum

Triticum monococcum L. and T. boeoticum L., diploid wild relatives of bread wheat (T. aestivum L.), possess resistance to leaf rust (also known as brown rust) caused by Puccinia triticina Eriks. Haustorium formation-based resistance mechanisms (i.e. pre-haustorial and post-haustorial resistance) to leaf rust have been studied and reported in various T. monococcum accessions. In the present study, the mechanism of leaf rust resistance in T. monococcum and T. boeoticum accessions was studied using confocal laser scanning microscopy. Components of resistance studied at a histological level against leaf rust pathotypes, a Mexican pathotype (TCB/TD) and a Swiss pathotype (97512-19), indicated different types of resistance mechanism operative in the two accessions. The resistance in T. monococcum ranged from pre-haustorial resistance against 97512-19 to post-haustorial resistance against TCB/TD. The response in T. boeoticum was post-haustorial with necrosis against the two pathotypes. Pre-haustorial resistance observed in T. monococcum could serve as a potential source of durable rust resistance in wheat breeding.

In vitro mature embryo culture protocol of einkorn (Triticum monococcum ssp. monococum) and bread (Triticumaestivum) wheat under boron stress

Mature embryos of einkorn (Triticum monococcum ssp. monococcum) and bread (Triticum aestivum) wheat were used for callus induction on media containing four (0, 1, 2 and 4 mg L− 1) different doses of 2,4-D and dicamba supplemented with under five (0, 6.2, 12.4, 24.8, and 37.2 mg L− 1) different boron stresses. The obtained callus was transferred to culture media with three (0, 0.5, and 2 mg L− 1) different BAP doses with five boron stresses for regeneration. The heaviest callus weight in einkorn wheat was in culture media with 1 mg L− 1 dicamba and 6.2 mg L− 1 (3.71 ± 0.13 g). Bread wheat had the heaviest callus weight on culture media with 4 mg L− 1 dicamba and 12.4 mg L− 1 (3.46 ± 0.40 g). Callus diameters were observed as the highest in culture media with 1 mg L− 1 and 12.4 mg L− 1 (1.10 ± 0.31) for einkorn and 4 mg L− 1 dicamba with 6.2 mg L− 1 boron (1.22 ± 0.27 cm) for bread wheat. Regeneration capacity was highest in control group with 6.2 mg L− 1 for both wheat genotypes (einkorn, 71.33% ± 11.78 and bread, 65.33% ± 10.80). The highest plantlet numbers were in only 2 mg L− 1 BAP (2.92 ± 0.88) for einkorn wheat and 0.5 mg L− 1 BAP supplemented with 6.2 mg L− 1 boron (3.71 ± 1.12) for bread wheat. This indirect regeneration protocol using mature embryos of einkorn and bread wheat under boron stresses may be useful for wheat breeding studies.