Students Responding to Natural Disasters and Terrorism

This chapter seeks to help teachers and school mental health professionals understand the needs of students who have faced a disaster or terrorism and identify strategies for school-based responses. The chapter provides an overview of the effects of these events on school children and youths, including relevant developmental and cultural considerations, and the impact on the school setting. Then, the discussion emphasizes recommendations for, and possible responses by, teachers, school-based mental health professionals, and administrators. Indeed, just as these traumas can affect multiple levels of school children’s lives, the needed response of school-based professionals can be framed as multi-level, ranging from curricular modification to interventions specifically targeting youngsters’ socio-emotional needs. The sections that follow seek to inform and guide responses for school personnel and provide clear, “actionable” recommendations.

Students Affected by Physical and Emotional Abuse

Abuse and maltreatment of children is a growing statistic. Each year, more than 3 million reports of alleged maltreatment are made to Child Protective Service agencies, suggesting that approximately six million children, or 11% of all U.S. students in K-12 schools, experience some form of maltreatment annually.8 While not all reported cases are investigated or substantiated, many instances of maltreatment go unreported; thus, the prevalence of maltreatment may be even higher. There are at least four major types of maltreatment: physical abuse, emotional abuse (or psychological maltreatment), neglect, and sexual abuse. It is important to note that these forms of maltreatment can occur separately or in combination with another. Given the unique characteristics and consequences associated with these various forms of maltreatment, this chapter will focus primarily on physical and emotional abuse. Other chapters in this volume will discuss sexual abuse (Chapter 13) and neglect (Chapter 14) in more details – readers working with students affected by physical and emotional abuse are encouraged to also review both of these other chapters for additional strategies.

Students Exposed to Domestic Violence

Domestic violence is a growing public health problem that affects children nationwide. In fact, research estimates that anywhere between three and 17.8 million children witness domestic abuse each year5. Therefore, it is likely that teachers will regularly encounter students in their classroom who have been exposed to domestic violence. The impact of domestic violence is widespread, affecting academic performance, behavior, and social development. Teachers can make a positive impact by learning how best to identify and support these students. The following chapter will provide an overview of domestic violence, developmental considerations, and strategies for helping children who have been affected by it.

How the Traumatic Experiences of Students Manifest in School Settings

The impact of trauma resonates in schools and can impair learning as well as cause challenging classroom behaviors. This chapter defines trauma as a response to adverse life experiences that can negatively affect physical, emotional, academic, and intellectual functioning. Specifically, it describes the impact of trauma on neurobiology and brain development, as well as academic, cognitive, behavioral, and social/emotional functioning. It also outlines practical, applicable strategies for addressing classroom management as well as six specific principles for educators who seek to support the social/emotional and academic development of students impacted by trauma. Professional self-care is also outlined as a vital core practice necessary to assist teachers in consistently approaching students from a strength-based perspective.

Childhood Trauma and a Framework for Intervention

Trauma impacts well over 20% of the population, with far-reaching personal and societal consequences that are often ameliorated by environmental supports. In this chapter, the prevalence, complex impacts and developmental influences of childhood trauma are described, and relevance of trauma to the educational community is established. The Attachment, Self-Regulation, and Competency (ARC) framework is introduced as one whole-school approach to developing a trauma-informed system.

Creating Safe and Supportive Schools for Students Impacted by Traumatic Experience

Addressing the needs of students impacted by traumatic experience begins with the development of trauma sensitive school ecologies. This can be achieved by addressing student needs in four domains: competence, self-regulation, relationships, and physical health/well-being. The characteristics of a trauma sensitive school include: 1. Staff awareness of the impact of trauma on learning; 2. Safe school environments for students, including physical, emotional and social safety; 3. Connections between students and the school community; 4. Coordination of efforts among school based, home and community based resources; and 5. Flexible and innovative responses to student needs to reinforce students’ sense of safety, connection to school, and success in school. The Flexible Framework (FF) is a process tool that is used to develop safe and supportive (trauma sensitive) school ecologies by assessing current needs, supporting the brainstorming of needed initiatives, guiding the implementation of new initiatives, and coordinating school wide efforts.

Students Affected by Neglect

Educators strive to provide an engaging environment which fosters the development of lifelong learners, and enthusiastically seek students that present with the optimal levels of academic engagement. These students are ambitious, independent, self-directed, and persistently strive toward competence and academic mastery.7 However, students who have experienced neglect may experience barriers that inhibit their ability to meet this ideal standard. Due to a multitude of interrelated factors in their neglectful home environment, these students may present with serious deficits in cognitive, academic, behavioral, social, and emotional development. This chapter is written to help teachers and school-based professionals understand and support the needs of students with a history of neglect including those whose neglect is ongoing. For a more comprehensive understanding of child maltreatment and the range of educational supports, readers are encouraged to also review Chapters 13 (sexual abuse) and 15 (physical and emotional abuse).

Students From Military Families

Military deployments can put significant strain on a student, and if applicable, the remaining caregiver. In fact, having a parent deployed to a war zone can be one of the most stressful events a child can experience. These students often are at increased risk for depression, behavioral problems, decreased academic performance, and emotional challenges. Unfortunately, many students have experienced long-term separation of a military parent(s) due to military involvement overseas. As of December 2007, the United States alone had over 360,000 active-duty military personnel deployed in more than 150 countries around the world, resulting in approximately 700,000 children with at least one parent deployed6. Deployments are often long and the students therefore rely on educators to play a significant role in their lives. Additional concerns exist for large number of children with non-deployed military parents, including those in the National Guard and Reserves. Numerous suggestions and classroom activities are provided.

Students Responding to the Unexpected Death of a Family Member or Loved One

This chapter will focus on the traumatic experience of losing an immediate family member or loved one due to unexpected death. Causes of unexpected death may include, but is not limited to homicide, suicide, heart attack, or car accident. Although some similar responses may occur between unexpected death and imminent death of a loved one (see Chapter 10), an unexpected death can trigger different emotions due to the inability to prepare, plan, and say goodbye. Common adverse symptoms resulting from this experience will be described, as well as differences observed across developmental stages and levels of understanding death. Strategies and interventions for educators will be described to improve social-emotional functioning and subsequent academic performance.

Students With Incarcerated Parents

Approximately 8.3 million American children have parents under correctional supervision (including parole or probation). Parental criminality often leads to an increase in emotional and behavioral problems among youth including emotional withdrawal, low self-esteem, failure at school, acting out or anti-social behaviors, delinquency, and an increased risk of intergenerational incarceration4. This chapter will provide teachers and school-based professionals with strategies to help support students with incarcerated parents and build resilience and optimism for a successful future. It will also provide strategies that teachers can utilize to help reach out to the remaining non-incarcerated caregivers.