21. Does Strategic Studies Have a Future?

This chapter reflects on the question of whether strategic studies has a future as a field of academic study. It first considers the early development of strategic studies and how it became a broad enquiry by the end of the cold war. It then examines how the study of strategy posed a challenge to the social sciences and goes on to discuss the tensions that exist between the academic and policy worlds with respect to strategic studies. It also explores elements of realism that remain very useful in the study of strategy, particularly when it comes to the issue of armed force. The chapter concludes by explaining why strategic studies should be revived as a subject in the universities and how this might be achieved.

20. The Practice of Strategy

This chapter considers the requirements of good strategy-making, first by explaining why good strategists are hard to find and arguing that modern strategic studies has done a poor job of educating those interested in the trade. It then highlights the deficits of contemporary strategic education, namely: insufficient attention to strategic classics and strategic history, along with a strong bias towards American-centric topics and perspectives. The chapter asserts that there is a lack of universal theory and offers a remedy, which it calls the General Theory of Strategy. This strategic theory involves three principles: understanding the nature and character of strategy, making strategies, and executing strategies. The chapter concludes by calling for the regular reassessment of strategic plans and engagements, insisting that strategy is a practical subject and that knowledge from its study must be communicated to those who need it.

16. The Rise of Cyberpower

This chapter examines the rise of cyberpower and its implications for strategy. The rapid spread of information-communication technologies around the world created a globally connected domain called cyberspace. Nearly every function of modern society is enabled by cyberspace. This is both an advantage and a serious vulnerability. The pervasiveness of cyberspace, along with the growing importance of cyberpower, is influencing international politics and the use of military force in the twenty-first century in a variety of ways. The chapter begins with a discussion of relevant terms and definitions before discussing cyberspace, cyberpower, and the infosphere. It then considers how cyberspace has become a place of constant conflict, focusing in particular on the problem of cyber security as well as the challenges and unknowns of cyber-attack. It concludes by reflecting on the potential of cyberpower to spark a revolution in military affairs.

15. Humanitarian Intervention and Peace Operations

This chapter deals with humanitarian interventions and peace operations. It first describes the transition from traditional peacekeeping to more ambitious post-cold war peace operations, paying attention to some of the difficulties of principle and practice that emerged in that transition. It then considers the politics of intervention and the constraints imposed by international and domestic politics, focusing on the politics of the United Nations Security Council and the impact of Western public opinion on humanitarian interventions. It also analyses the applicability of the main principles of war to peace operations and how these principles interact with political imperatives. The chapter concludes by discussing future challenges for peacekeeping and the effects of peacekeeping, taking into account the perspectives of the individuals and communities targeted by intervention and peacekeeping efforts.

14. Theory and Practice of Continental Warfare

This chapter examines the theory and practice of continental warfare, with particular emphasis on the relationship between ideas on conventional land warfare and actual experience since 1900. It considers technological change, including mechanization, as the central challenge facing modern theorists as well as tactical and doctrinal responses that emerged very quickly in reaction to modern weapons' radical lethality. These responses emphasized cover, concealment, tight integration of suppressive fire and movement, depth, and reliance on withheld reserves at the cost of lighter forward deployments. These concepts subsequently formed the foundation for most modern systems of tactics and doctrine. The chapter explores the relationship between theory and practice in continental warfare by focusing on four case studies: the European theatre in the First and Second World Wars, the Arab–Israeli War of 1973, and the Gulf War of 1991.

8. Intelligence and Strategy

This chapter explores the role of intelligence in strategy. It first explains what intelligence is and how strategists have talked about its utility before discussing the development of U.S. intelligence in its early efforts to support cold war strategies of containment and deterrence and in its more recent support to strategies for counterterrorism and counterinsurgency. It then examines the challenges and causes of ‘strategic surprise’, focusing on the historical cases of Pearl Harbor in 1941, the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, the Yom Kippur War in 1973, and the 11 September 2001 attacks. It also describes some of the new challenges faced by intelligence after a decade of war in Iraq and Afghanistan as well as in dealing with the new ‘big data’ problem.

5. Strategic Culture

This chapter examines the scholarly and policymaking relevance of strategic culture in the contemporary world. Strategic culture may challenge and at the same time enrich prevailing neo-realist assumptions regarding strategy and security. It bridges material and ideational explanations of state behaviour, adding valuable perspectives to understand different countries' contemporary security policy choices. The chapter first considers approaches that address the relationship between culture and nuclear strategy during the cold war before discussing theoretical issues related to strategic culture, including the contribution of constructivism to security studies; the question of ‘ownership’ of strategic culture; and whether non-state, state, and multi-state actors can possess distinctive strategic cultures. It also reviews recent work that explores the link between strategic culture and the acquisition of and threats to use weapons of mass destruction.

3. Strategic Theory

This chapter examines a range of theories that explain why wars occur and how these various explanations of war give rise to different requirements or conditions for peace. It first considers the difficulties involved in studying war before discussing the immediate and underlying causes of war. It then explores explanations of war based on human nature and instinct, along with psychological theories that emphasize misperception and frustration as causes of aggression. It also analyses the ideas of those who find the causes of war in human collectives — states, tribes, and ethnic groups — and those who favour ‘systemic’ rather than ‘unit’ explanations. Finally, it looks at the debate between ‘greed’ and ‘grievance’ as a cause of civil wars as well as wars that occur ‘within’ and ‘beyond’ states.

1. The History of the Practice of Strategy from Antiquity to Napoleon

This chapter traces the history of the practice of strategy from Antiquity to Napoleon Bonaparte. It first considers various definitions of strategy before discussing episodes of European history since Antiquity for which historians claim to have found evidence of the practice of strategy. While focusing only on Europe, the chapter covers case studies over nearly 2,500 years, ranging from the wars of Ancient Greece, of the Romans to medieval warfare, the warfare of Philip II of Spain, Louis XIV of France, Frederick II of Prussia, the French Revolutionaries, and Napoleon. It also considers two sets of incremental changes that ultimately led to the transformation of warfare and of strategy: the growth, centralization, and diversifiation of the structure of European states; and technological innovation.

Introduction: Strategy in the Contemporary World:

This edition explores the role of military power in the contemporary world and the changes that have occurred over the last decade. It examines the debates about whether there has been a revolution in military affairs and the future of warfare, given the phenomenal pace of innovation in electronics and computer systems, which is often referred to as cyberwar. It also considers the strategic implications of the changing structure of global politics and the role of U.S. military power in a world in transition, along with the continuing relevance of various theories of peace and security. This introduction discusses strategic studies, criticisms levelled against strategic studies, and the relationship between strategic studies and security studies.