Market Changes and Market Anomie

This chapter uses the core concepts of institutional anomie theory, one of the most exciting theoretical developments in criminology of the recent past, to explain why people commit crimes in the marketplace. This theory in particular models neo-liberal changes to markets that affect the relationship between state and markets, consumption patterns, and citizenship. Modelling relies on structural equations and explores these processes and their impact on the three regions.

Saints and Sinners

This chapter draws upon qualitative and quantitative data to assess the extent of both victimization and offending in the market place. It examines what consumers did when they found they had been cheated, and discusses the extent to which there is an overlap between being a victim and offender. The chapter paints a detailed picture of victimization, offending, and the degree to which these are related. Findings show that some types of victimization are very common in all three regions, like e.g. unnecessary repairs, while considerable differences exist between them in terms of being offered too little by one’s insurer (most common in West Germany), or being sold faulty second-hand goods (most common in England and Wales). Differences in offending are by far more distinct, with the West Germans outdoing their East Germans and English and Welsh counterparts. For both victimization and offending trajectories of mostly ‘slow-burning change’ were detected for all three regions. Middle-class consumers do not differ from disadvantaged social groups with regard to the relation between victimization and offending: the findings suggest as strong a relationship between victimization and offending, similar to what is usually found for violent offenders and their victimization in marginalized neighbourhoods.

Change Regions and Changes in Normative Market Cultures

This chapter explores the history of the three regions in Europe which are the focus of this work; namely, England and Wales, and the former East and West Germany. Their recent economic histories are recounted, as well as the nature of these economic and social changes, and which social groups are most likely to have been affected by them. These changes have increased the opportunities for crime in the marketplace for many citizens. The extent to which people living in these three areas report perceptions of change in their societies is examined, as well as trust in market institutions, cynicism about the law, and values related to contemporary citizenship, and how they differ between change regions and generations.

Moral Economy, Predatory Society

This chapter takes us into the murky world of seeminglypetty crimes at work, dishonesty in paperwork, and cheating. These topics are often left at the margins of criminological thinking, theorizing, and enquiries, and this work is an attempt to bring these more fully into mainstream studies. This chapter relates our thinking and findings on this topic to the work of others in criminology and related fields. It introduces the reader to both the concept of economic morality and the notion of ‘crime in the marketplace’, as well as the history of research into white-collar crime. We describe the main topic of the research project on which the book is based, and the extent to which this has been ignored by previous generations of criminologists. The moral economy of the neo-liberal marketplace is outlined (drawing upon E.P. Thompson’s work), the research strategy is explained, and some of the key concepts later developed are discussed.

Crime, Consumption, and Economic Morality

This chapter summarizes the main findings from the study, reflects on the theoretical and substantive knowledge produced, and assess its importance for criminological theory and research. It outlines the unique methodology of combining in-depth comparison with large scale macro-level perspectives. It identifies the mechanisms and dynamics that shape the moral economy and victimization and offending in the marketplace across time and space. Building on these results, the futures of middle class crime are discussed. With a global increase of middle class populations, and driven by technology and the internet, the crimes of everyday life and shady practices will become ever more important. Criminologists need to pay attention.

The Anxieties of the Marketplace

The fear of crime is a core topic of criminology. This chapter explores the characteristics of fear of crimes in the marketplace. It is the wealthier members of society who are worried about crime in the marketplace, unlike other crime fears (such as burglary), which are held by poorer people. The chapter then models fear of crime in the marketplace using structural equation modelling. It then analyses the fear of crime as a driver of attitudes and behaviour, thus modelling the consequences of fear rather than fear as an outcome. The findings suggest that people with higher levels of fear become more cynical about rules (legal cynicism) and intend offend again.

The Contours of European Moral Economies

This chapter draws on data from the European Social Survey, which was based on the original survey and explored the economic morality and middle-class crime for twenty-five countries in Europe. Levels of victimization and offending differ widely across Europe and its regions. Importantly, we find that more affluent and equal countries with larger middle classes also have higher levels of offending and victimization, as well as overlap between both. Opportunities combined with greed might be the factors that shape the moral economies at the centre of European societies. Perceptions of unfairness and abuse of power by business are decisive determinants of allegiance to norms and rules, distrust in many institutions which operate in the marketplace and fear of being victimized in European countries. Regulation and oversight of business and empowerment of consumers therefore are identified as reasonable routes to reduce losses from widespread fraud and shady practices by citizens and consumers.

Clerks, Crowns, and Consumers

This chapter is devoted to an in-depth analysis of the relationship between victimization and offending among people acting as citizens and consumers. The chapter starts with an examination, relying upon structural equation modelling, of how experiences of victimization are turned into intentions to offend, and actual offending via various belief structures, and attitudes. Following this it explores beliefs about the role of the state and the role of social networks. Finally, these are brought together in one model which examines the role of a variety of routes of transmission from victimization to offending.

Communicating Crime, Risk, and Blame

This chapter assesses the ways in which citizens and consumers communicate about their experiences of victimization as well as about the offences they committed, and how they create and shape the moral climate of contemporary markets. It explores how individual citizens support each other in avoiding victimization, provide moral support for offending and offer help in committing offences, comparing these by country. It analyses the extent to which such social networks which support offending are associated with legal cynicism, intentions to offend, techniques of neutralization, and self-interestedness. As well as relying on qualitative data, vignettes from the survey undertaken are included.

The Middling Sort

The chapter focuses on the core concept of the ‘middle class’. For England and Wales, the former East Germany and the former West Germany, socio-economic positions and financial situations of citizens/consumers are identified along with the social and economic attitudes related to these. The chapter then embarks on an examination of the relationship between individual’s socio-economic position and financial situation and involvement in crime in the marketplace, both as victims and offenders. The findings demonstrate that those with higher levels of income are most heavily involved in these types of crimes, equally as victims and offenders.