scholarly journals The Sense of Effort: a Cost-Benefit Theory of the Phenomenology of Mental Effort

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Marcell Székely ◽  
John Michael
Keyword(s):  
Cost Benefit Analysis ◽  
Cost Benefit ◽  
Limited Resource ◽  
Mental Effort ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Benefit Analysis ◽  
Sense Of Effort ◽  
The Core ◽  
Working Definition ◽  
Definition Of

Abstract In the current paper, we articulate a theory to explain the phenomenology of mental effort. The theory provides a working definition of mental effort, explains in what sense mental effort is a limited resource, and specifies the factors that determine whether or not mental effort is experienced as aversive. The core of our theory is the conjecture that the sense of effort is the output of a cost-benefit analysis. This cost-benefit analysis employs heuristics to weigh the current and anticipated costs of mental effort for a particular activity against the anticipated benefits. This provides a basis for spelling out testable predictions to structure future research on the phenomenology of mental effort.

scholarly journals Costa, cancer and coronavirus: contractualism as a guide to the ethics of lockdown

2021 ◽  
pp. medethics-2020-107103
Author(s):  
Stephen David John ◽  
Emma J Curran
Keyword(s):  
Moral Theory ◽  
Cost Benefit Analysis ◽  
Cost Benefit ◽  
Benefit Analysis ◽  
Life And Death ◽  
The Third ◽  
The Core ◽  
Key Issues ◽  
Moral Distinction ◽  
Self Defence

Lockdown measures in response to the COVID-19 pandemic involve placing huge burdens on some members of society for the sake of benefiting other members of society. How should we decide when these policies are permissible? Many writers propose we should address this question using cost-benefit analysis (CBA), a broadly consequentialist approach. We argue for an alternative non-consequentialist approach, grounded in contractualist moral theorising. The first section sets up key issues in the ethics of lockdown, and sketches the apparent appeal of addressing these problems in a CBA frame. The second section argues that CBA fundamentally distorts the normative landscape in two ways: first, in principle, it allows very many morally trivial preferences—say, for a coffee—might outweigh morally weighty life-and-death concerns; second, it is insensitive to the core moral distinction between victims and vectors of disease. The third section sketches our non-consequentialist alternative, grounded in Thomas Scanlon’s contractualist moral theory. On this account, the ethics of self-defence implies a strong default presumption in favour of a highly restrictive, universal lockdown policy: we then ask whether there are alternatives to such a policy which are justifiable to all affected parties, paying particular attention to the complaints of those most burdened by policy. In the fourth section, we defend our contractualist approach against the charge that it is impractical or counterintuitive, noting that actual CBAs face similar, or worse, challenges.

The Illusion of Costs without Benefits

2020 ◽  
pp. 107-118
Author(s):  
Michael A. Livermore ◽  
Richard L. Revesz
Keyword(s):  
Public Health ◽  
Cost Benefit Analysis ◽  
Cost Savings ◽  
Cost Benefit ◽  
Social Benefits ◽  
Executive Order ◽  
Benefit Analysis ◽  
Compliance Costs ◽  
The Core ◽  
Trump Administration

The core of the Trump administration’s regulatory agenda is to focus on the costs of regulations while ignoring, trivializing, and mischaracterizing their benefits. The administration has made significant regulatory efforts to delay or repeal important initiatives of the Obama administration designed to protect public health and the environment. In some of these proceedings, the Trump administration has altogether ignored the benefits of the rules it seeks to eliminate or suspend, instead focusing solely on cost savings to regulated industry. For example, Trump’s Executive Order 13,771 directs agencies to control costs and eliminate two regulations for every new one. This one-sided approach makes a mockery of cost-benefit analysis. Saving regulatory costs is attractive only if the benefits forgone as a result of these savings are lower than those costs. A rule that reduces compliance costs by giving up an even larger set of social benefits is hardly an attractive proposition.

scholarly journals An economic model of risk assessment for water projects

2020 ◽  
Vol 20 (6) ◽  
pp. 2054-2068
Author(s):  
Antonio Nesticò ◽  
Gianluigi De Mare ◽  
Gabriella Maselli
Keyword(s):  
Risk Assessment ◽  
Cost Benefit Analysis ◽  
Cost Benefit ◽  
Investment Risk ◽  
Limit Set ◽  
Benefit Analysis ◽  
Water Projects ◽  
Project Risk ◽  
Environmental Decision Making ◽  
Definition Of

Abstract The projects that concern water resources are characterized by the multiple risk rates – even extra–financial – that significantly affect their concrete feasibility. Although the risk assessment is decisive for expressing economic convenience judgements on these project initiatives, the decision-maker does not have precise references to determine whether the residual investment risk is acceptable. Thus, the purpose of the paper is to overcome the limit set by characterizing a model for the acceptability of project risk, also considering the plurality of environmental effects that the water projects generate on the community. The idea is to integrate the logic ‘As Low As Reasonably Practicable’ (ALARP) into the procedural schemes of Cost–Benefit Analysis (CBA). In accordance with this principle, widely applied in high-risk sectors such as those of industrial engineering, a risk is ALARP when the costs to further reduce it are disproportionate to the obtainable benefits. The application of the model to an irrigation reconversion intervention in a Municipality in the Province of Salerno (Italy) shows that the ALARP logic defines a general way of thinking and can contribute to the definition of effective forecasting protocols. In this sense, the proposed methodology becomes a useful support for environmental decision-making. (The paper is to be attributed in equal parts to the three authors.)

scholarly journals Decomposing the motivation to exert mental effort

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Amitai Shenhav ◽  
Mahalia Prater Fahey ◽  
Ivan Grahek
Keyword(s):  
Cognitive Control ◽  
Real World ◽  
Cost Benefit Analysis ◽  
Cost Benefit ◽  
Mental Effort ◽  
Control Model ◽  
Expected Value ◽  
Benefit Analysis ◽  
Costs And Benefits ◽  
Measure Of Performance

Achieving most goals demands cognitive control, yet people vary widely in their success at meeting these demands. While motivation is known to be fundamental to determining these successes, what determines one’s motivation to perform a given task remains poorly understood. Here, we describe recent efforts towards addressing this question using the Expected Value of Control model, which simulates the process by which people weigh the costs and benefits of exerting mental effort. By functionally decomposing this cost-benefit analysis, this model has been used to fill gaps in our understanding of the mechanisms of mental effort and to generate novel predictions about the sources of variability in real-world performance. We discuss the opportunities the model provides for formalizing hypotheses about why people vary in their motivation to perform tasks, as well as for understanding limitations in our ability to test these hypotheses based on a given measure of performance.

Same-sex marriage: the irrelevance of the economic approach to law

2010 ◽  
Vol 6 (2) ◽  
pp. 139-149
Author(s):  
Mark D. White
Keyword(s):  
Economic Analysis ◽  
Cost Benefit Analysis ◽  
Cost Benefit ◽  
Economic Approach ◽  
Economic Analysis Of Law ◽  
Benefit Analysis ◽  
Same Sex ◽  
Same Sex Marriage ◽  
The Core ◽  
Trade Offs

AbstractSeveral noted legal scholars, most prominently Richard Posner, have applied the economic analysis of law to the debate over same-sex marriage. In this note, I argue that the economic approach to law is ill-equipped to deal with the issues of principle, dignity and rights that are at the core of the debate, regardless of the position taken on the issue. Other scholars, such as Darren Bush, acknowledge the shortcomings of the economic approach, such as the importance of the assumptions on which cost-benefit analysis is made, but they do not appreciate that this is symptomatic of the economic approach as a whole, not merely the application of it by some scholars in some cases. My contention is that the economic approach to law is appropriate regarding issues of policy, where trade-offs are essential and necessary, but not regarding issues of principle, with which trade-offs are not so easily made.

scholarly journals A new methodological protocol for the use of dendrogeomorphological data in flood risk analysis

2012 ◽  
Vol 44 (2) ◽  
pp. 234-247 ◽  
Author(s):  
A. Díez-Herrero ◽  
J. A. Ballesteros-Cánovas ◽  
J. M. Bodoque ◽  
V. Ruiz-Villanueva
Keyword(s):  
Cost Benefit Analysis ◽  
Cost Benefit ◽  
Data Sources ◽  
Mitigation Measures ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Model Parameters ◽  
Benefit Analysis ◽  
2D And 3D ◽  
Apply Statistics ◽  
Made In

Dendrogeomorphology uses information sources recorded in the roots, trunks and branches of trees and bushes located in the fluvial system to complement (or sometimes even replace) systematic and palaeohydrological records of past floods. The application of dendrogeomorphic data sources and methods to palaeoflood analysis over nearly 40 years has allowed improvements to be made in frequency and magnitude estimations of past floods. Nevertheless, research carried out so far has shown that the dendrogeomorphic indicators traditionally used (mainly scar evidence), and their use to infer frequency and magnitude, have been restricted to a small, limited set of applications. New possibilities with enormous potential remain unexplored. New insights in future research of palaeoflood frequency and magnitude using dendrogeomorphic data sources should: (1) test the application of isotopic indicators (16O/18O ratio) to discover the meteorological origin of past floods; (2) use different dendrogeomorphic indicators to estimate peak flows with 2D (and 3D) hydraulic models and study how they relate to other palaeostage indicators; (3) investigate improved calibration of 2D hydraulic model parameters (roughness); and (4) apply statistics-based cost–benefit analysis to select optimal mitigation measures. This paper presents an overview of these innovative methodologies, with a focus on their capabilities and limitations in the reconstruction of recent floods and palaeofloods.

scholarly journals Decomposing the Motivation to Exert Mental Effort

2021 ◽  
Vol 30 (4) ◽  
pp. 307-314
Author(s):  
Amitai Shenhav ◽  
Mahalia Prater Fahey ◽  
Ivan Grahek
Keyword(s):  
Cognitive Control ◽  
Real World ◽  
Cost Benefit Analysis ◽  
Cost Benefit ◽  
Mental Effort ◽  
Control Model ◽  
Expected Value ◽  
Benefit Analysis ◽  
Costs And Benefits ◽  
Measure Of Performance

Achieving most goals demands cognitive control, yet people vary widely in their success at meeting these demands. Although motivation is known to be fundamental to determining success at achieving a goal, what determines motivation to perform a given task remains poorly understood. Here, we describe recent efforts toward addressing this question using the expected-value-of-control model, which simulates the process by which people weigh the costs and benefits of exerting mental effort. This model functionally decomposes this cost-benefit analysis and has been used to fill gaps in understanding of the mechanisms of mental effort and to generate novel predictions about the sources of variability in real-world performance. We discuss the opportunities the model provides for formalizing hypotheses about why people vary in their motivation to perform tasks, as well as for understanding limitations in researchers’ ability to test these hypotheses using a given measure of performance.

Intentions and Cyberterrorism

2021 ◽  
pp. 186-200
Author(s):  
Florian J. Egloff
Keyword(s):  
Cost Benefit Analysis ◽  
Cost Benefit ◽  
Digital Data ◽  
Terrorist Attacks ◽  
Benefit Analysis ◽  
Hypothetical Case ◽  
Ashley Madison ◽  
Definition Of ◽  
Terrorist Acts ◽  
Novel Behaviour

This chapter focuses on intentions and cyberterrorists. In defining cyberterrorism as the use, or threat of use, of cyberspace to deliver violence, through the disruption or destruction of digital data, the chapter captures potentially novel behaviour. It highlights the claims made by intelligence officials about terrorists’ intentions of using cyberspace. It then interrogates to what extent this matches the literature on terrorist motivations and intentions, and whether cyberspace is an attractive means for carrying out terrorist attacks. Finding that a simple cost–benefit analysis does not favour cyberspace as a means of carrying out terrorist acts, the chapter interrogates the vectors of change both on the intentions and capability side of the assessment. It closes with the analysis of a hypothetical case that would match the definition of cyberterror: a religiously inspired version of the Ashley Madison hack.

Mystery of Recycling

2020 ◽  
pp. 877-896
Author(s):  
Yasin Galip Gencer
Keyword(s):  
Cost Benefit Analysis ◽  
Cost Benefit ◽  
Waste Reduction ◽  
Waste Minimization ◽  
Benefit Analysis ◽  
Recycling Process ◽  
Waste Hierarchy ◽  
The Third ◽  
Sustainable Value ◽  
Definition Of

Recycling is a key component of modern waste reduction and is the third component of the “Reduce, Reuse and Recycle” waste hierarchy. Recycling and/or waste minimization is a prerequisite for sustainable value and green environment. Recyclable materials include many kinds of glass, paper, metal, plastic, textiles, and electronics. The composting or other reuse of food is also considered recycling. This chapter starts with an expanded definition of recycling; afterwards, the recycling processes of glass and aluminum are examined in detail. Besides recycling, for a green environment the necessity for reducing and reusing of waste is also considered. Another topic will be the myths of recycling-unknown realities about recycling process. Furthermore, types of recycling and cost-benefit analysis will be explained. Ultimately, the chapter will be concluded by criticisms about recycling, and potential areas for further discussion.

scholarly journals Positional Analysis: A Multidimensional and Democracy-Oriented Approach to Decision-Making and Sustainability

2020 ◽  
Vol 12 (14) ◽  
pp. 5555
Author(s):  
Peter Söderbaum
Keyword(s):  
Policy Making ◽  
Sustainable Development Goals ◽  
Cost Benefit Analysis ◽  
Cost Benefit ◽  
Essential Elements ◽  
Benefit Analysis ◽  
Positional Analysis ◽  
The World ◽  
Development Goals ◽  
Definition Of

Essential principles of democracy are threatened in many parts of the world. In mainstream economics textbooks, reference to democracy is marginal or non-existent. At issue is if economics as a discipline can contribute to strengthen democracy in policy-making and decision situations more generally. In this essay, it is proposed that democracy becomes part of the definition of economics. While mainstream neoclassical cost–benefit analysis (CBA) is criticized as being technocratic, positional analysis (PA) connected with institutional ecological economics is advocated and presented with its essential elements. While a specific ideological orientation with emphasis on markets is built into CBA, PA represents an attempt to identify more than one ideological orientation or narrative as relevant among actors related to an issue. This is part of an attempt to carry out a many-sided analysis. If we wish to make the 17 UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) part of analysis, then multidimensional thinking is needed. PA is an attempt to avoid the “monetary reductionism” of CBA in favor of an analysis where monetary and non-monetary impacts (of different kinds) are separated and where, particularly on the non-monetary side, issues of inertia and irreversibility of impacts are observed.

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