Classroom Interactions in the Target Language: Learners’ Perceptions, Willingness to Communicate, and Communication Behavior

Abstract Life-long learning requires that language learners be well prepared for the target situations they will be operating in. To achieve this goal and to improve education for sustainable development, language teachers and language educators need to motivate language learners to participate in the target language. The present study, therefore, investigated the relationships between willingness to communicate (WTC) and possible selves, WTC and learner autonomy, and WTC and academic target needs in an English for Academic Purposes (EAP) context to open up new horizons for sustainable L2 learning. In addition, the present study was aimed at examining the extent to which WTC, possible selves, and learner autonomy would predict academic target needs. Five hundred and ninety male and female undergraduate students from two state-run universities in Iran participated in this study. The present study used four questionnaires to collect the data, and SPSS (version 25) was used to analyze the data. The findings showed a significant positive relationship between WTC and possible selves. Finally, results from hierarchical multiple regression revealed that WTC, possible selves, and learner autonomy were predictors of academic target needs. The findings suggest that the interplay of several variables should be considered if language learners need to actively communicate in L2 academic settings. Implications for sustainable development in L2 pedagogy are also discussed.

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Translating ambiguous and nonambiguous Words in a foreign Language

ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics ◽

10.2143/itl.139.0.2003201 ◽

2003 ◽

Vol 139-140 ◽

pp. 129-152

Author(s):

Paul Bogaards ◽

Elisabeth Van Der Linden ◽

Lydius Nienhuis

Keyword(s):

Foreign Language ◽

University Students ◽

Language Learners ◽

Mother Tongue ◽

Empirical Support ◽

Lexical Ambiguity ◽

Target Language ◽

Bilingual Lexicon ◽

The Individual

The research to be reported on in this paper was originally motivated by the finding that about 70% of the mistakes made by university students when translating from their mother tongue (Dutch) into their foreign language (French) were lexical in nature (NIENHUIS et al. 1989). This was partially confinned in the investigation described in NIENHUIS et al. (1993). A closer look at the individual errors suggested that many problems were caused by words with more than one meaning which each require different translations in the target language. In the research reported on in this paper, we checked our fmdings in the light of what is known about the structure of the bilingual lexicon and about the ways bilinguals have access to the elements of their two languages. On the basis of the model of the bilingual lexicon presented by KROLL & Sholl (1992) an adapted model is proposed for the processing of lexical ambiguity. This leads to a tentative schema of the mental activities that language learners have to perfonn when they are translating from their mother tongue into a foreign language, The second part of the paper describes two experiments we have carried out in order to find empirical support for such a schema. The last section of the paper contains a discussion of the results obtained as well as the conclusions that can be drawn.

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Assessing the L2 pragmatic awareness of non-native EFL teacher candidates: Is spotting a problem enough?

Lodz Papers in Pragmatics ◽

10.1515/lpp-2020-0003 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 16 (1) ◽

pp. 33-65

Author(s):

Karen Glaser

Keyword(s):

Language Learners ◽

Teacher Candidates ◽

Target Language ◽

False Alarms ◽

Language Teacher Education ◽

Advanced Learners ◽

Efl Teacher ◽

Pragmatic Awareness ◽

English Speaking ◽

Research Gap

AbstractThe assessment of pragmatic skills in a foreign or second language (L2) is usually investigated with regard to language learners, but rarely with regard to non-native language instructors, who are simultaneously teachers and (advanced) learners of the L2. With regard to English as the target language, this is a true research gap, as nonnative English-speaking teachers (non-NESTs) constitute the majority of English teachers world-wide (Kamhi-Stein 2016). Addressing this research gap, this paper presents a modified replication of Bardovi-Harlig and Dörnyei’s (1998) renowned study on grammatical vs. pragmatic awareness, carried out with non-NEST candidates. While the original study asked the participants for a global indication of (in)appropriateness/ (in)correctness and to rate its severity, the participants in the present study were asked to identify the nature of the violation and to suggest a repair. Inspired by Pfingsthorn and Flöck (2017), the data was analyzed by means of Signal Detection Theory with regard to Hits, Misses, False Alarms and Correct Rejections to gain more detailed insights into the participants’ metalinguistic perceptions. In addition, the study investigated the rate of successful repairs, showing that correct problem identification cannot necessarily be equated with adequate repair abilities. Implications for research, language teaching and language teacher education are derived.

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Adult Chinese as a Second Language Learners' Willingness to Communicate in Chinese: Effects of Cultural, Affective, and Linguistic Variables

Psychological Reports ◽

10.1177/0033294117692808 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 120 (3) ◽

pp. 423-442 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

Meihua Liu

Keyword(s):

Second Language ◽

Length Of Stay ◽

Language Learners ◽

Second Language Learners ◽

Willingness To Communicate ◽

Anxiety Scale ◽

Linguistic Variables ◽

Speaking Anxiety ◽

Proficiency Level ◽

Chinese Learning

The present research explored the effects of cultural, affective, and linguistic variables on adult Chinese as a second language learners' willingness to communicate in Chinese. One hundred and sixty-two Chinese as a second language learners from a Chinese university answered the Willingness to Communicate in Chinese Scale, the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale, Chinese Speaking Anxiety Scale, Chinese Learning Motivation Scale, Use of Chinese Profile, as well as the Background Questionnaire. The major findings were as follows: (1) the Willingness to Communicate in Chinese Scales were significantly negatively correlated with Chinese Speaking Anxiety Scale but positively correlated with length of stay in China and (2) Chinese Speaking Anxiety Scale was a powerful negative predictor for the overall willingness to communicate in Chinese and the Willingness to Communicate in Chinese Scales, followed by length of stay in China, Chinese Learning Motivation Scale, interaction attentiveness, and Chinese proficiency level. Apparently, students' willingness to communicate in Chinese is largely determined by their Chinese Speaking Anxiety Scale level and length of stay in China, mediated by other variables such as Chinese proficiency level and intercultural communication sensitivity level.

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Factors predicting classroom WTC in English and French as foreign languages among adult learners in Spain

Language Teaching Research ◽

10.1177/13621688211054046 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 136216882110540

Author(s):

Elvira Barrios ◽

Irene Acosta-Manzano

Keyword(s):

Adult Learners ◽

Foreign Language ◽

Language Learners ◽

Language Proficiency ◽

Language Use ◽

Willingness To Communicate ◽

French Language ◽

Study Results ◽

Language Classroom ◽

Relative Standing

This study aimed to identify associations and predictors of willingness to communicate (WTC) of adult foreign language (FL) learners and whether they are contingent upon the FL being learned. To this end, our research investigated learner variables associated with WTC in adult FL learners of English and of French in an under-researched field of WTC studies in Spain. More specifically, the following variables were studied: gender, age, level of multilingualism, perceived relative standing in the class, language proficiency, teacher’s use of the FL in class, out-of-class foreign language use (OCFLU) and the two emotions of foreign language enjoyment (FLE) and foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA). Of the 9 independent variables examined, FLCA and language proficiency were found to be predictors of the WTC of both English and French language learners; additionally, enjoyment was found to be a predictor of WTC of learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) and OCFLU, of learners of French as a foreign language (FFL). Our findings indicate that the construct of WTC needs to be further studied as research may produce dissimilar results depending on the instructional setting, population and foreign language. Pedagogical implications for language teaching practices seeking to enhance adult FL learners’ WTC were also drawn from the study results.

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The L2 syllabus: corpus or contrivance?

Corpora ◽

10.3366/cor.2007.2.2.157 ◽

2007 ◽

Vol 2 (2) ◽

pp. 157-185 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

Terry Shortall

Keyword(s):

Natural Frequency ◽

Language Learners ◽

Target Language ◽

Frequency Data ◽

Present Perfect ◽

Corpus Studies ◽

Verb Forms ◽

Growing Body ◽

Real Language ◽

Corpus Data

Corpus linguists have argued that corpora allow us to present lexical and grammatical patterns to language learners as they occur in real language, thereby exposing the learner to authentic target language (Mindt, 1996; Biber et al., 2002; Sinclair, 2004). And there is now a growing body of empirical research into how corpus studies can benefit ELT materials design and development (Ljung, 1990, 1991; Römer, 2004, 2005). This study investigates how the present perfect is represented in a spoken corpus and in ELT textbooks. The objective is to see whether corpus frequency data can make textbook present perfect presentation represent reality more accurately, and also whether there are sometimes pedagogic aims that may override frequency considerations. Results show that textbooks fail to represent adequately how present perfect interacts with other verb forms to create hybrid tenses such the present perfect passive. Textbooks also over-represent the frequency of structures such as the present perfect continuous. Adverbs such as yet and already are much more frequent in textbooks than in the corpus. Textbook writers seem to deliberately exaggerate the frequency of such adverbs, and arguably use them as tense markers or flagging devices so that learners will expect to see present perfect when they see yet and already. This suggests that disregard for natural frequency data may be justifiable if pedagogic considerations of this kind are taken into account. So, while corpus data provides important and useful frequency data for the teaching of grammar, pedagogic objectives may sometimes require that frequency data is disregarded.

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Chinese Learners of Portuguese and Spanish Majors in Macau: A Comparative Case-Study of Motivation Aspects

English Language Teaching ◽

10.5539/elt.v12n8p54 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 12 (8) ◽

pp. 54

Author(s):

Oksana Kharlay ◽

Martin Bagheri ◽

Jeremy D. Philips

Keyword(s):

Language Learning ◽

Language Learners ◽

Mixed Methods Research ◽

Learning Motivation ◽

Target Language ◽

Comparative Case Study ◽

Language Community ◽

Language Learning Motivation ◽

Chinese Learners ◽

Integrative Motivation

This study investigated multiple learning motivation aspects of Chinese university students in Macau majoring in Spanish and Portuguese. A mixed methods research was employed by using questionnaires and interviews. 181 learners (96 Portuguese and 85 Spanish majors) were surveyed about ten language-learning motivation dimensions by using a questionnaire. A subset of participants from questionnaires were later given follow-up interviews. Quantitative and qualitative data indicated that the students in these majors had strong intrinsic motivation but limited integrative motivation towards the target language community. Other motivational pull-factors were the heritage connection between the language and the place of study and interest in the pop-culture associated related to the target language. Students reported a decline in motivation during the middle years of study, however, Spanish students’ interest resurged by the end of year three. There was also a gender imbalance, suggesting that career-related aspects of motivations were stronger among males. The results also revealed that language learners had an ideal-self that was multilingual and cosmopolitan but did not aspire to integrate into a specific target-language community.

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A Study of Language Anxiety among English Language Learners in Saudi Arabia

10.31235/osf.io/nk4em ◽

2019 ◽

Author(s):

Badia Muntazer Hakim

Keyword(s):

English Language Learners ◽

Language Learning ◽

Language Learners ◽

English Language ◽

Group Discussion ◽

Structured Interview ◽

Language Teachers ◽

Target Language ◽

Language Anxiety ◽

Self Awareness

Classroom anxiety is a recurrent phenomenon for language learners. There are various factors that cause language anxiety, the most common of which include learners’ excessive self-consciousness and self-awareness concerning their oral reproduction and performance and their peculiar, and quite often misplaced and mistaken, views and beliefs regarding different approaches. Other potential reasons for this problem could include the fear, and the consequent deterrence occasioned thereof, of encountering difficulties in language learning, specifically learners’ individual problems regarding the culture of the target language and the varying social statuses of speakers. The most important fear is, perhaps, the deterrent fear of causing damage to one’s self-identity. Therefore, while needing to paying special attention to language learners’ anxiety reactions, language teachers have a crucial role in helping their students achieve the expected performance goals in the target language. Another factor that could potentially lead to language anxiety is simply the poor command of the target language. This problem could be attributed to linguistic barriers and obstacles language learners encounter in learning and using the target language. In the current study, using a qualitative, semi-structured interview and the focus-group discussion technique, the researcher aims to investigate the factors that contribute to language anxiety among Arab language learners. It focuses on learners both within the classroom setting and without, i.e. in the social context, and recommends a number of approaches to manage and overcome this problem.

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Reading Strategies, Reading Comprehension, and Translation

Acta Universitatis Sapientiae, Philologica ◽

10.2478/ausp-2018-0013 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 10 (2) ◽

pp. 55-67

Author(s):

Gabriella Kovács

Keyword(s):

Reading Comprehension ◽

Language Learners ◽

Reading Strategies ◽

Reading Skills ◽

Language Teachers ◽

Target Language ◽

Border Crossings ◽

Comprehension Skills ◽

Intercultural Mediators ◽

Reading Comprehension Skills

AbstractTranslators and language teachers are cultural and intercultural mediators, facilitators of intercultural transfers and border crossings between cultures. The abilities to understand, interpret, and produce written texts appropriately play an essential role in these professions. In the process of translation, source-language texts have to be understood and translated using the most appropriate target-language equivalents. Reading skills and awareness of reading strategies are equally essential for language teachers, who are expected to guide language learners in developing these skills. In this study, we intend to examine the reading habits and reading strategies used by a group of Hungarian translator and teacher trainees when dealing with texts written in English. Their reading comprehension performance will be assessed with a test and compared with their ability to translate English texts into Hungarian. Based on the literature and our personal experience in language teaching, teacher training, and translator training, we assume that students preparing for the above mentioned professions have a well-developed reading strategy awareness and that their reading comprehension skills in English strongly influence the ability to translate texts into their native language.

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Blogging Identity: How L2 Learners Express Themselves

Acta Linguistica Asiatica ◽

10.4312/ala.5.1.53-70 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 5 (1) ◽

pp. 53-70

Author(s):

Kiyomi FUJII

Keyword(s):

Language Learning ◽

Language Learners ◽

Language Choice ◽

Target Language ◽

Self Presentation ◽

Advanced Level ◽

Self Image ◽

L1 And L2 ◽

Identity Expression

This study discusses language learning and identity, particularly pertaining to intermediate-advanced-level Japanese-language learners, focusing on their target language and identity expression through their interactions with peers and Japanese college students. When learners of Japanese express their identities while interacting with others in their target language, they feel a gap between the self-image they want to present, and the image they are capable of presenting in Japanese (Siegal, 1994, 1995, 1996). Along with adjusting their L1 and L2 usage depending on their interlocutor (Kurata 2007), learners also use different sentence-ending styles depending on the role they want to assume (Cook 2008). By conducting a case study, the present inquiry attempts to address how learners of Japanese express their identities through blog conversations, focusing on their language choice and expressions. Results suggest that participants use the formal endings for self-presentation and projection of their student and classmate identity. However, when expressing emotion some students preferred informal endings, or sentence-final particles.

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