Essential descriptors for mycotoxin contamination data in food and feed

Mycotoxins are ubiquitously present in agricultural commodities, such as cereals and oil seeds. If ingested in sufficiently high concentrations, they exert severe toxic effects in humans and animals. In 2004, a survey programme was launched to assess the extent of mycotoxin contamination in feed and feed raw materials. Since then, over 19,000 samples have been analysed and more than 70,000 individual analyses have been conducted. While it is difficult to infer any long-term trends on a global level, the data confirm that high mycotoxin contamination is often linked to unusual weather. Overall, 72% of the samples contained detectable amounts of aflatoxins, fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone or ochratoxin A. Co-contamination with two or more mycotoxins was detected in 38% of the samples. In most cases the concentrations were low enough to ensure compliance with EU guidance values or maximum levels. However, co-contaminated samples with concentrations below guidance and maximum values might still exert adverse effects due to synergistic interactions of the mycotoxins. Emerging mycotoxins and masked mycotoxins may also contribute to the overall toxicity of the feed and their presence is frequently detected with multi-mycotoxin LC-MS/MS. Since by-product feeds, such as distillers dried grain with solubles, often concentrate the mycotoxins of the original substrate, they contribute excessively to the overall contamination of feed rations and therefore need special attention. Regarding food the situation is quite similar: low level contamination is frequently observed in official controls but maximum levels are rarely exceeded in developed countries. As it is very difficult to remove mycotoxins from contaminated commodities, preventing them from accumulation in agricultural commodities is the most effective strategy to combat the problem. Preventive measures range from crop rotation and resistance breeding to inoculation with microbial antagonists. Nevertheless, excessive mycotoxin levels may occur despite all preventive measures. Therefore, continuous monitoring is essential and efficient detoxification strategies are needed to deal with such outbreaks.

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The MyToolbox EU–China Partnership—Progress and Future Directions in Mycotoxin Research and Management

Toxins ◽

10.3390/toxins12110712 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 12 (11) ◽

pp. 712

Author(s):

John Leslie ◽

Birgit Poschmaier ◽

Hans van Egmond ◽

Alexandra Malachová ◽

Monique de Nijs ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Mycotoxin Research ◽

Group Discussions ◽

Joint Research ◽

Future Directions ◽

Mycotoxin Contamination ◽

Food And Feed ◽

China Studies ◽

Stakeholder Workshop ◽

Eu Project ◽

Contamination Events

Affordable and practical tools for farmers and food processors along the chain are required to efficiently reduce the risk of mycotoxin contamination of crops, feeds and foods. Developing new tools and enhancing existing ones was the mission of MyToolBox—a four-year EU-project that included important Chinese partners and joint research efforts. To identify future directions in mycotoxin research and management in China and their role in China–EU relations, a unique stakeholder workshop including group discussions was organized in Beijing. Six related topics: biocontrol, forecasting, sampling and analysis, silo management, detoxification, and the development of safe use options for contaminated materials were covered. The discussions clearly identified a critical need for smart, integrated strategies to address mycotoxin issues to attain safer food and feed, and to minimize losses and export rejections. Managing data on when, where and the size of mycotoxin contamination events and identifying the institution(s) to manage them are complex issues in China. Studies of microbes and novel, genetically-altered enzymes to limit pre-harvest contamination and to manage post-harvest product detoxification and alternate uses of contaminated materials are in the early stages in China. Further efforts are needed to increase the visibility of mycotoxin problems beyond the scientific and research communities.

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Transgenic approaches for pre-harvest control of mycotoxin contamination in crop plants

World Mycotoxin Journal ◽

10.3920/wmj2009.1138 ◽

2009 ◽

Vol 2 (2) ◽

pp. 203-214 ◽

Cited By ~ 9

Author(s):

J. Cary ◽

K. Rajasekaran ◽

J. Yu ◽

R. Brown ◽

D. Bhatnagar ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Genetic Engineering ◽

Agricultural Practices ◽

Crop Plants ◽

Effective Control ◽

Mycotoxin Contamination ◽

Genomics And Proteomics ◽

Regulatory Guidelines ◽

Mycotoxigenic Fungi ◽

Food And Feed ◽

Resistance To Invasion

Mycotoxins are fungal metabolites that can contaminate food and feed crops worldwide and are responsible for toxic effects in animals and humans that consume contaminated commodities. Regulatory guidelines and limits for mycotoxins have been set by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and food safety agencies of other countries for both import and export of affected commodities. Mycotoxin contamination of foods and feeds can also cause serious economic hardships to producers, processors, and the consumer. Therefore, there has been a concerted effort by researchers worldwide to develop strategies for the effective control of mycotoxin contamination of crops, particularly at the pre-harvest stage. Strategies currently being utilised to combat pre-harvest mycotoxin contamination include: (1) use of non-toxigenic biocontrol strains; (2) improved agricultural practices; (3) application of agrochemicals; (4) plant breeding for resistance; and (5) genetic engineering of resistance genes into crop plants. This article highlights research on the genetic engineering of plants for resistance to invasion by mycotoxigenic fungi as well as detoxification of mycotoxins. Emphasis is placed on the most economically relevant fungi and the mycotoxins they produce. These include aflatoxins produced mainly by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, trichothecenes produced mainly by Fusarium graminearum, and to a lesser extent, fumonisins produced by F. verticillioides. Information is also presented on the use of genomics and proteomics technologies as a means of identifying genes and proteins that can be utilised in transgenic approaches to control the growth of mycotoxigenic fungi and the mycotoxins that they produce in food and feed crops.

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PSII-22 Trends in Mycotoxin Contamination in United States Corn

Journal of Animal Science ◽

10.1093/jas/skaa054.306 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 98 (Supplement_3) ◽

pp. 172-173

Author(s):

Erika Hendel ◽

Shelby Ramirez ◽

Paige Gott ◽

G Raj Murugesan ◽

Ursula Hofstetter

Keyword(s):

Animal Health ◽

Corn Silage ◽

Mitigation Strategies ◽

Fungal Metabolites ◽

Mycotoxin Contamination ◽

Food And Feed ◽

Type A Trichothecenes ◽

Low Levels ◽

Feed Safety ◽

New Crop

Abstract Mycotoxins are harmful secondary fungal metabolites and are of key concern to food and feed safety globally. These toxins are detrimental to animal health and can compromise animal performance even at low levels. Classic signs such as decreased feed intake and vomiting used as indicators for exposure overlook other costs of mycotoxicosis, including increasing the frequency and severity of disease via immune suppression, inciting inflammation, and modulating the gastrointestinal environment. This survey examines initial samples of the 2019 crop with previous year trends. New crop corn samples were submitted from September 2019 and consisted of corn (46%), corn silage (50%), and corn byproduct (4%). Samples were analyzed utilizing the liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method for six major mycotoxin groups: aflatoxins (Afla), type A trichothecenes (A-Trich), type B trichothecenes (B-Trich), fumonisins (FUM), zearalenone (ZEN), and ochratoxin-A (OTA). Data are presented for major mycotoxin classes in Table 1. Fewer samples are available thus far compared to the fall of 2018 (50 samples in 2019 vs. 135 samples in 2018), thus risk profile of this crop year is likely to change as the sample pool expands. Co-occurrence (≥ 2 mycotoxins) has decreased compared to 2018. The prevalence of B-Trich decreased compared with previous years, but levels are similar to 2018. Prevalence and levels of ZEN decreased from 2018, and are similar to 2017, while FUM is similar in prevalence to 2018, but average ppb numerically increased. As of yet, no Alfa has been detected; however, corn stored with higher moisture content has increased the risk for storage toxins. Mycotoxin risk of this harvest season is still coming into focus as harvest delays have affected sample submission. Due to continued risk of multi-mycotoxin contamination, multiple mitigation strategies are needed beyond just adsorption, including biotransformation, support of the immune system and liver function.

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Fungal Contamination and Aflatoxin B1 Detected in Hay for Dairy Cows in South Italy

Frontiers in Nutrition ◽

10.3389/fnut.2021.704976 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 8 ◽

Author(s):

Carlotta Ceniti ◽

Nicola Costanzo ◽

Anna Antonella Spina ◽

Marinella Rodolfi ◽

Bruno Tilocca ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Dairy Cows ◽

Animal Health ◽

Fungal Species ◽

Matter Content ◽

Economic Losses ◽

Dry Matter Content ◽

Mycotoxin Contamination ◽

South Italy ◽

Food And Feed ◽

Fungal Deterioration

The growth of filamentous fungi on fodder is recognized as responsible for fungal deterioration and mycotoxin contamination of the plant mass leads to economic losses in the dairy cow production system. Mycotoxin contamination has significant implications for human and animal health and is one of the major concerns in the food and feed chain. This research provides an insight into the variety of viable molds (i.e., filamentous microfungi) that can be isolated from hay produced in South Italy and destined to dairy cows. On different lots of hay (n = 55) collected from 20 dairy farms, a total of 33 different fungal species were identified. The most representative was Cladosporium cladosporioides (n = 46, 84%) followed by Alternaria alternata (n = 25, 45%), and Rhizopus stolonifer (n = 24, 44%). The species most closely related to aflatoxin (AF) contamination, Aspergillus flavus, was often isolated (n = 11, 20%). Regarding AF detection, all the hay samples were found to be scarcely contaminated by AFB1 and showed values from 0.0020 to 0.0077 mg/kg, below the limits established by European Union (EU legislation) (0.02 mg/kg). None of the samples were positive for Aspergillia and tested for AFB1 showed results exceeding established limits. Additionally, hay with moisture between 15.0 and 19.2% or crude ash on dry matter content ranging from 14.0 to 15.5% reported an increased presence of AFB1 (p < 0.05) compared to the other samples. All the analyzed hay samples, besides the presence of molds, can be considered safe for the presence of AFB1. Prevention of mold spoilage is mandatory to reduce the exposure of humans and animals to mycotoxins.

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Mycotoxin contamination of food and feed in China: Occurrence, detection techniques, toxicological effects and advances in mitigation technologies

Food Control ◽

10.1016/j.foodcont.2018.03.036 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 91 ◽

pp. 202-215 ◽

Cited By ~ 26

Author(s):

Haitao Shi ◽

Shengli Li ◽

Yueyu Bai ◽

Luciana L. Prates ◽

Yaogeng Lei ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Detection Techniques ◽

Mycotoxin Contamination ◽

Toxicological Effects ◽

Food And Feed

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Transgenic Expression of Lytic Peptides in Food and Feed Crops to Control Phytopathogens and Preharvest Mycotoxin Contamination

ACS Symposium Series - Mycotoxin Prevention and Control in Agriculture ◽

10.1021/bk-2009-1031.ch009 ◽

2009 ◽

pp. 119-142 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

K. Rajasekaran ◽

J.M. Jaynes ◽

J.W. Cary

Keyword(s):

Transgenic Expression ◽

Mycotoxin Contamination ◽

Food And Feed ◽

Lytic Peptides

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Mycotoxins in Feed and Food and the Role of Ozone in Their Detoxification and Degradation: An Update

Toxins ◽

10.3390/toxins12080486 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 12 (8) ◽

pp. 486 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

Giuseppe Conte ◽

Marco Fontanelli ◽

Francesca Galli ◽

Lorenzo Cotrozzi ◽

Lorenzo Pagni ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Animal Species ◽

Air Pollutant ◽

Mycotoxin Contamination ◽

Post Harvest ◽

Chemical Residues ◽

Food And Feed ◽

Increasing Demand ◽

Definition Of ◽

Broad Objective

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by some filamentous fungi, which can cause toxicity in animal species, including humans. Because of their high toxicological impacts, mycotoxins have received significant consideration, leading to the definition of strict legislative thresholds and limits in many areas of the world. Mycotoxins can reduce farm profits not only through reduced crop quality and product refusal, but also through a reduction in animal productivity and health. This paper briefly addresses the impacts of mycotoxin contamination of feed and food on animal and human health, and describes the main pre- and post-harvest systems to control their levels, including genetic, agronomic, biological, chemical, and physical methods. It so highlights (i) the lack of effective and straightforward solutions to control mycotoxin contamination in the field, at pre-harvest, as well as later post-harvest; and (ii) the increasing demand for novel methods to control mycotoxin infections, intoxications, and diseases, without leaving toxic chemical residues in the food and feed chain. Thus, the broad objective of the present study was to review the literature on the use of ozone for mycotoxin decontamination, proposing this gaseous air pollutant as a powerful tool to detoxify mycotoxins from feed and food.

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Mycotoxins as Emerging Contaminants. Introduction to the Special Issue “Rapid Detection of Mycotoxin Contamination”

Toxins ◽

10.3390/toxins13070475 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 13 (7) ◽

pp. 475

Author(s):

András Székács

Keyword(s):

Environmental Health ◽

Rapid Detection ◽

Emerging Contaminants ◽

Special Issue ◽

Mycotoxin Contamination ◽

Food And Feed

Concerns for human and environmental health regarding mycotoxins are predominantly raised in connection with their occurrence in food and feed (especially in grains) [...]

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