RURAL–URBAN MIGRATION AND CHILD SURVIVAL IN URBAN BANGLADESH: ARE THE URBAN MIGRANTS AND POOR DISADVANTAGED?

2008 ◽  
Vol 40 (1) ◽  
pp. 83-96 ◽  
Author(s):  
M. MAZHARUL ISLAM ◽  
KAZI MD ABUL KALAM AZAD
Keyword(s):  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Urban Poor ◽  
Child Survival ◽  
Childhood Mortality ◽  
Policy Implications ◽  
Urban Migration ◽  
Under Five ◽  
Urban Migrants ◽  
Urban Rural

SummaryThis paper analyses the levels and trends of childhood mortality in urban Bangladesh, and examines whether children’s survival chances are poorer among the urban migrants and urban poor. It also examines the determinants of child survival in urban Bangladesh. Data come from the 1999–2000 Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey. The results indicate that, although the indices of infant and child mortality are consistently better in urban areas, the urban–rural differentials in childhood mortality have diminished in recent years. The study identifies two distinct child morality regimes in urban Bangladesh: one for urban natives and one for rural–urban migrants. Under-five mortality is higher among children born to urban migrants compared with children born to life-long urban natives (102 and 62 per 1000 live births, respectively). The migrant–native mortality differentials more-or-less correspond with the differences in socioeconomic status. Like childhood mortality rates, rural–urban migrants seem to be moderately disadvantaged by economic status compared with their urban native counterparts. Within the urban areas, the child survival status is even worse among the migrant poor than among the average urban poor, especially recent migrants. This poor–non-poor differential in childhood mortality is higher in urban areas than in rural areas. The study findings indicate that rapid growth of the urban population in recent years due to rural-to-urban migration, coupled with higher risk of mortality among migrant’s children, may be considered as one of the major explanations for slower decline in under-five mortality in urban Bangladesh, thus diminishing urban–rural differentials in childhood mortality in Bangladesh. The study demonstrates that housing conditions and access to safe drinking water and hygienic toilet facilities are the most critical determinants of child survival in urban areas, even after controlling for migration status. The findings of the study may have important policy implications for urban planning, highlighting the need to target migrant groups and the urban poor within urban areas in the provision of health care services.

scholarly journals Influencing Factors of Rural Families’ Migration to Urban Area: The Case of Kabul, Afghanistan

2020 ◽  
pp. 1-10
Author(s):  
Abdul Ahad Hakim ◽  
Ismet Boz
Keyword(s):  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Rural Families ◽  
Study Data ◽  
Manuscript Preparation ◽  
Gender Inequalities ◽  
Urban Migration ◽  
Face To Face ◽  
Urban Migrants ◽  
Rural Urban Migration

Aims: This study aimed to determine factors influencing rural families’ migration to urban areas in Kabul, Afghanistan. Place and Duration of Study: Data were collected in different neighbourhoods of Kabul, Afghanistan during the July-September period of 2019. Data analyses and manuscript preparation were completed in the October-December period of 2019. Methodology: First, the most populated neighbourhoods of Kabul, particularly those areas where the majority of families migrated from rural areas were determined. The data of the study were collected from 400 rural-urban migrants in Kabul city. The questionnaires were filled during face to face informal meetings with households. The collected data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, including frequencies, percentages, and means. The questionnaire included socio-economic characteristics of rural-urban migrants, pushing and pulling factors which affected rural migration, reasons for insecurity in rural areas, and satisfaction and reintegration of migrants in Kabul city. Results: The results show that unemployment with 9.53 and fear of terror with 9.15 are the most effective pushing factors for rural families to migrate. However, the most important pulling factors which make Kabul city attractive for rural families are the issues regarding rights (women rights with 8.82, having right to vote with 8.73 and human rights with 8.71). Conclusion: In the last five years Afghanistan had huge number immigration internally (1.1 million person) and internationally (1.7 million people) Results of this study suggest that to slower rural-urban migration in Afghanistan, rural development programs should be implemented, and the priority of these programs should be given to the creation of employment opportunities and eliminating gender inequalities in rural areas. Otherwise, either rural-urban migration or dissatisfaction of being in Kabul and preferring not reintegrating back to their villages will make rural-urban migrants seek international migration.

scholarly journals Determinants of Under-Five Child Mortality in Arab Countries. Are the Effects Homogeneous Across Birth Order and Among Countries?

2021 ◽  
Vol 14 (23) ◽  
pp. 34-49
Author(s):  
Chellai Fatih
Keyword(s):  
Birth Order ◽  
Child Mortality ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Arab Countries ◽  
Policy Implications ◽  
Educational Levels ◽  
Under Five ◽  
Risk Of Death ◽  
Increased Risk

Abstract Under-five-child mortality remains a major challenge for governments in the Arab world to achieve Sustainable Development Goals. Thus, further studies are needed to analyze the determinants of child mortality. The Multiple Indicators Cluster Surveys (MICS) datasets of six Arab countries (Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Mauritania, Sudan, and Tunisia) have been used, which are consisting of 249.000 children nested within 54.644 mothers. The study was designed in a women-parity-covered one to six birth order. Binary multivariable logistic models were used to estimate the risk ratios of death by adjusting for child sex, birth outcome (twin vs. singleton), mother’s education level, maternal age, previous birth interval, place of residence (rural vs. urban), and the family wealth index. The findings revealed that the under-five child mortality rates were 87, 70,66,35,36, and 21 per 1000 live births in Sudan, Mauritania, Egypt, Iraq, Algeria, and Tunisia, respectively). First-born infants in these six countries have a higher risk of mortality during their five years of life. Second, third-and fourth-born infants were at a decreased risk of death compared to first-born infants in all countries; in contrast, fifth-and-sixth-born infants were at an increased risk in all countries except Sudan and Mauritania. Twin children have a higher risk of death than singletons in all countries and across all birth orders. Children of mothers with higher educational levels living in urban areas are at lower risk of death than their peers across all birth orders. Regarding policy implications, decision-makers can target three main axes: first, enhancing women’s educational levels; second, increasing birth intervals (birth spacing policies); and third, improving living standards and healthcare strategies, especially in rural areas to improve child and mother health.

scholarly journals Perpetual ‘Outcasts’? Squatters in peri-urban Bulawayo, Zimbabwe

Afrika Focus ◽  
2012 ◽  
Vol 25 (2) ◽  
Author(s):  
Busani Mpofu
Keyword(s):  
Urban Space ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Urban Poor ◽  
Low Cost ◽  
Urban Migration ◽  
Informal Economies ◽  
Hard Times ◽  
Housing Shortages ◽  
Urban Development Policy

After independence in 1980 Zimbabwe’s cities experienced a proliferation in the number of squatter camps. This was because of the failure of the urban economy to offer adequate housing and jobs, leaving peri-urban space as the only sanctuary for the urban poor to live in and eke out a living informally. The promotion of rural ‘growth points’ by the national government to promote rural development to discourage migration to urban areas failed. Yet, a poor policy response by the state to this negative outcome of rapid urbanisation that aims to reverse this rural-urban migration has led to unending confrontations between its various arms and squatters who continue to be regarded as encroachers. Focussing on Bulawayo, the second largest city in Zimbabwe, and based on interviews, archival research, Council minutes and newspapers, this article critiques the state’s urban development policy vis-à-vis squatters and informality. It is argued that the persist- ence of a salient perception by government officials that all Africans belong to rural areas and have access to land they can fall back on in hard times serves as a vital lubricant to the state’s action of forcibly sending squatters to rural areas. This ignores the historical pattern of rapid urbanisation and the growth of informal economies supporting the livelihoods of thousands of people. I seek to add to the literature on low-cost housing shortages, urban squatters and peri-urbanism in Zim- babwe and on studies of informality in Third World cities in general. Key words: squatters, outcasts, informality, institutional weaknesses, peri-urban Bulawayo, Zimbabwe 

scholarly journals Migration, settlement change and health in post-apartheid South Africa: Triangulating health and demographic surveillance with national census data1

2007 ◽  
Vol 35 (69_suppl) ◽  
pp. 77-84 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mark A. Collinson ◽  
Stephen M. Tollman ◽  
Kathleen Kahn
Keyword(s):  
South Africa ◽  
Population Growth ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Rural Poverty ◽  
Chronically Ill ◽  
Policy Implications ◽  
World Population ◽  
Urban Migration ◽  
Temporary Migration

Background: World population growth will be increasingly concentrated in the urban areas of the developing world; however, some scholars caution against the oversimplification of African urbanization noting that there may be ``counterurbanization'' and a prevailing pattern of circular rural—urban migration. The aim of the paper is to examine the ongoing urban transition in South Africa in the post-apartheid period, and to consider the health and social policy implications of prevailing migration patterns. Methods: Two data sets were analysed, namely the South African national census of 2001 and the Agincourt health and demographic surveillance system. A settlement-type transition matrix was constructed on the national data to show how patterns of settlement have changed in a five-year period. Using the sub-district data, permanent and temporary migration was characterized, providing migration rates by age and sex, and showing the distribution of origins and destinations. Findings: The comparison of national and sub-district data highlight the following features: urban population growth, particularly in metropolitan areas, resulting from permanent and temporary migration; prevailing patterns of temporary, circular migration, and a changing gender balance in this form of migration; stepwise urbanization; and return migration from urban to rural areas. Conclusions: Policy concerns include: rural poverty exacerbated by labour migration; explosive conditions for the transmission of HIV; labour migrants returning to die in rural areas; and the challenges for health information created by chronically ill migrants returning to rural areas to convalesce. Lastly, suggestions are made on how to address the dearth of relevant population information for policy-making in the fields of migration, settlement change and health.

scholarly journals Perpetual ‘Outcasts’? Squatters in peri-urban Bulawayo, Zimbabwe

Afrika Focus ◽  
2012 ◽  
Vol 25 (2) ◽  
pp. 45-63
Author(s):  
Busani Mpofu
Keyword(s):  
Urban Space ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Urban Poor ◽  
Low Cost ◽  
Urban Migration ◽  
Government Officials ◽  
Hard Times ◽  
Housing Shortages ◽  
Urban Development Policy

After independence in 1980 Zimbabwe’s cities experienced a proliferation in the number of squatter camps. This was because of the failure of the urban economy to offer adequate housing and jobs, leaving peri-urban space as the only sanctuary for the urban poor to live in and eke out a living informally. The promotion of rural ‘growth points’ by the national government to promote rural development to discourage migration to urban areas failed. Yet, a poor policy response by the state to this negative outcome of rapid urbanisation that aims to reverse this rural-urban migration has led to unending confrontations between its various arms and squatters who continue to be regarded as encroachers. Focussing on Bulawayo, the second largest city in Zimbabwe, and based on interviews, archival research, Council minutes and newspapers, this article critiques the state’s urban development policy vis-à-vis squatters and informality. It is argued that the persistence of a salient perception by government officials that all Africans belong to rural areas and have access to land they can fall back on in hard times serves as a vital lubricant to the state’s action of forcibly sending squatters to rural areas. This ignores the historical pattern of rapid urbanisation and the growth ofinformal economies supporting the livelihoods of thousands of people. I seek to add to the literature on low-cost housing shortages, urban squatters and peri-urbanism in Zimbabwe and on studies of informality in Third World cities in general.

Il declino della mortalitŕ durante l'infanzia nella Spagna urbana e rurale, 1860-1930

STORIA URBANA ◽  
2009 ◽  
pp. 125-148
Author(s):  
Diego Ramiro Farinas
Keyword(s):  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Childhood Mortality ◽  
Housing Conditions ◽  
Rural Environments ◽  
Foetal Mortality ◽  
Urban Rural ◽  
Migration Flows ◽  
Urban And Rural Areas ◽  
Sewage Systems

Diego Ramiro-Farińas, The decline of childhood Mortality in Urban and Rural Spain, 1860-1930 The study of urban mortality and urban-rural mortality differentials has attracted the attention of many scholars. Most of the literature points to a higher childhood mortality in urban areas, mainly due to the unfavourable conditions for rearing children in cities which were normally densely populated and with very poor housing conditions and normally with inefficient water supply and sewage systems. This study shows that urban overmortality was above all a characteristic of children dying after the first 10 days of life and the differences between urban and rural environments widened with increased age of the deceased. There were also important differences between urban and rural areas in foetal mortality. Moreover, cities with under 20,000 inhabitants were the unhealthiest for children of all urban and rural environments. We highlight the importance of urban areas as poles of attraction for migrants and also as administrative centres, where health and charity institutions were preferably located. These institutions and the migration flows played an important role in the level of urban mortality. Foundling hospitals provide a significant example of this relationship.

scholarly journals Risk Factors Associated With Under-Five Diarrhea and Their Effect on Under-Five Mortality in Rwanda: Secondary Data Analysis of 2014–2015 Rwanda Demographic and Health Survey (Rdhs).

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jean Bosco NDIKUBWIMANA ◽  
Frederic NGENDAHIMANA ◽  
Angelique DUKUNDE ◽  
Evariste GATABAZI ◽  
Faustin HAKIZIMANA
Keyword(s):  
Rural Areas ◽  
Child Survival ◽  
National Level ◽  
Childhood Mortality ◽  
Bivariate Analysis ◽  
Childhood Diarrhea ◽  
Protection Measures ◽  
Significance Level ◽  
Under Five ◽  
Selection Of Variables

Abstract Aims: Diarrhea claimed to be among the leading cause of childhood mortality in developing countries include Rwanda despite its simple protection measures. The current study intended to elucidate the image of childhood diarrhea and to sort out which strong causes are linked to this phenomenon in Rwanda. Therefore, contribute, on the basis of a quantitative analysis outcome, to good policymaking oriented to the enhancement of the welfare of children in Rwanda and the second target of SDGs of ensuring child survival.Methods: Data were obtained from RDHS2015 in the child’s file. Following the inclusion criteria of having at least one under-five child in a household and that child has full records on her/his diarrhea status during the last two weeks preceding the survey, a total of 7474 children met the criteria and were thus included in the analysis. The selection of variables was guided by Genser B. and colleagues’ theory. Descriptive, and bivariate analyses were performed. Identified variables were statistically associated with childhood diarrhea in Rwanda and were subsequently considered into the multivariate analysis of the strongest causes of childhood diarrhea in Rwanda.Results: The descriptive analysis revealed that among 7474 sampled under-five children, 12.11% have been infected by diarrhea during the two weeks preceding the survey. The bivariate analysis revealed that type of place of residence, mother’s education level, anemia level of the child, type of toilet facility, sharing the toilet with other households, time to get water source, source of drinking water, poverty, child’s age, and main floor material are statistically associated with the prevalence of childhood diarrhea in Rwanda and thus was selected to be predicting childhood diarrhea based on their significance level and confidence interval. The reduced model of binary logistic regression revealed that only being aged below three years, living in a poor family, and uses an improved toilet increases the chances of childhood diarrhea infection. Conclusions: Childhood diarrhea can be effectively managed with reasonable outcomes by strengthening the sanitation system with more focus on rural areas families especially the poorest families; reinforcement of the Ministry of Health, and other related measures to mitigate the identified issues. Also, periodically research is highly needed on all levels of children not only on diarrhea in order to help national level planning in various sectors.

Urban–Rural Dichotomy in Planning: Review of Legal Framework in Four States of India

2021 ◽  
pp. 001955612110016
Author(s):  
Anurima Mukherjee Basu ◽  
Rutool Sharma
Keyword(s):  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Planning Process ◽  
Legal Framework ◽  
Quantum Jump ◽  
Class 1 ◽  
Urban Settlements ◽  
Urban Rural ◽  
Territorial Approach ◽  
Sizeable Number

Current urbanisation trends in India show a quantum jump in number of ‘census towns’, which are not statutorily declared as urban areas, but have acquired all characteristics of urban settlements. Sizeable number of such census towns are not located near any Class 1 city. Lack of proper and timely planning has led to unplanned growth of these settlements. This article is based on a review of planning legislations, institutional framework and planning process of four states in India. The present article analyses the scope and limitations of the planning process adopted in the rapidly urbanising rural areas of these states. The findings reveal that states are still following a conventional approach to planning that treats ‘urban’ and ‘rural’ as separate categories and highlights the need for adopting an integrated territorial approach to planning of settlements.

scholarly journals Urban–rural disparity in cancer incidence in China, 2008–2012: a cross-sectional analysis of data from 36 cancer registers

BMJ Open ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (4) ◽  
pp. e042762
Author(s):  
Shuai Yuan ◽  
Shao-Hua Xie
Keyword(s):  
Cancer Incidence ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Incidence Rates ◽  
Cancer Type ◽  
Anatomic Site ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Rural And Urban Areas ◽  
Rural And Urban ◽  
Urban Rural

ObjectiveThe substantial differences in socioeconomic and lifestyle exposures between urban and rural areas in China may lead to urban–rural disparity in cancer risk. This study aimed to assess the urban–rural disparity in cancer incidence in China.MethodsUsing data from 36 regional cancer registries in China in 2008–2012, we compared the age-standardised incidence rates of cancer by sex and anatomic site between rural and urban areas. We calculated the rate difference and rate ratio comparing rates in rural versus urban areas by sex and cancer type.ResultsThe incidence rate of all cancers in women was slightly lower in rural areas than in urban areas, but the total cancer rate in men was higher in rural areas than in urban areas. The incidence rates in women were higher in rural areas than in urban areas for cancers of the oesophagus, stomach, and liver and biliary passages, but lower for cancers of thyroid and breast. Men residing in rural areas had higher incidence rates for cancers of the oesophagus, stomach, and liver and biliary passages, but lower rates for prostate cancer, lip, oral cavity and pharynx cancer, and colorectal cancer.ConclusionsOur findings suggest substantial urban–rural disparity in cancer incidence in China, which varies across cancer types and the sexes. Cancer prevention strategies should be tailored for common cancers in rural and urban areas.

scholarly journals Seasonal variation and spatial distribution of carbonaceous aerosols in Taiwan

2010 ◽  
Vol 10 (19) ◽  
pp. 9563-9578 ◽  
Author(s):  
C. C.-K. Chou ◽  
C. T. Lee ◽  
M. T. Cheng ◽  
C. S. Yuan ◽  
S. J. Chen ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Spatial Distribution ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Air Pollutants ◽  
Chemical Properties ◽  
Anthropogenic Sources ◽  
Carbonaceous Aerosols ◽  
Urban Rural ◽  
Southern Taiwan ◽  
Northern Taiwan

Abstract. To investigate the physico-chemical properties of aerosols in Taiwan, an observation network was initiated in 2003. In this work, the measurements of the mass concentration and carbonaceous composition of PM10 and PM2.5 are presented. Analysis on the data collected in the first 5-years, from 2003 to 2007, showed that there was a very strong contrast in the aerosol concentration and composition between the rural and the urban/suburban stations. The five-year means of EC at the respective stations ranged from 0.9±0.04 to 4.2±0.1 μgC m−3. In rural areas, EC accounted for 2–3% of PM10 and 3–5% of PM2.5 mass loadings, comparing to 4–6% of PM10 and 4–8% of PM2.5 in the urban areas. It was found that the spatial distribution of EC was consistent with CO and NOx across the network stations, suggesting that the levels of EC over Taiwan were dominated by local sources. The measured OC was split into POC and SOC counterparts following the EC tracer method. Five-year means of POC ranged from 1.8±0.1 to 9.7±0.2 μgC m−3 among the stations. It was estimated that the POM contributed 5–17% of PM10 and 7–18% of PM2.5 in Taiwan. On the other hand, the five-year means of SOC ranged from 1.5±0.1 to 3.8±.3 μgC m−3. The mass fractions of SOM were estimated to be 9–19% in PM10 and 14–22% in PM2.5. The results showed that the SOC did not exhibit significant urban-rural contrast as did the POC and EC. A significant cross-station correlation between SOC and total oxidant was observed, which means the spatial distribution of SOC in Taiwan was dominated by the oxidant mixing ratio. Besides, correlation was also found between SOC and particulate nitrate, implying that the precursors of SOA were mainly from local anthropogenic sources. In addition to the spatial distribution, the carbonaceous aerosols also exhibited distinct seasonality. In northern Taiwan, the concentrations of all the three carbonaceous components (EC, POC, and SOC) reached their respective minima in the fall season. POC and EC increased drastically in winter and peaked in spring, whereas the SOC was characterized by a bimodal pattern with the maximal concentration in winter and a second mode in summertime. In southern Taiwan, minimal levels of POC and EC occurred consistently in summer and the maxima were observed in winter, whereas the SOC peaked in summer and declined in wintertime. The discrepancies in the seasonality of carbonaceous aerosols between northern and southern Taiwan were most likely caused by the seasonal meteorological settings that dominated the dispersion of air pollutants. Moreover, it was inferred that the Asian pollution outbreaks could have shifted the seasonal maxima of air pollutants from winter to spring in the northern Taiwan, and that the increases in biogenic SOA precursors and the enhancement in SOA yield were responsible for the elevated SOC concentrations in summer.

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