The Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in the breath of some infected dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius)

Abstract Dromedary camels remain the currently identified reservoir for the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). The virus is released in the secretions of the infected camels, especially the nasal tract. The virus shedding curve through the nasal secretions was studied. Although human transmission of the virus through the respiratory tract of close contact people with dromedary reported previously, the exact mechanism of transmission is still largely unknown. The main goal of this study was to check the possibility of MERS-CoV shedding in the exhaled air of the infected camels. To achieve this goal, we conducted a follow-up study in one of the dromedary camel herds, December 2018–April 2019. We tested nasal swabs, breath samples from animals within this herd by the real-time PCR. Our results showed that some of the tested nasal swabs and breath were positive from 24 March 2019 until 7 April 2019. The phylogenetic analysis of the obtained S and N gene sequences revealed the detected viruses are clustering together with some human and camel samples from the eastern region, especially from Al-Hufuf city, as well as some samples from Qatar and Jordon. These results are clearly showing the possibility of shedding of the virus in the breath of the infected camels. This could explain, at least in part, the mechanism of transmission of MERS-CoV from animals to humans. This study is confirming the shedding of MERS-CoV in the exhaled air of the infected camels. Further studies are needed for a better understanding of the MERS-CoV.

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Lack of detection of the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) nucleic acids in some Hyalomma dromedarii infesting some Camelu dromedary naturally infected with MERS-CoV

BMC Research Notes ◽

10.1186/s13104-021-05496-w ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 14 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Maged Gomaa Hemida ◽

Mohammed Alhammadi ◽

Faisal Almathen ◽

Abdelmohsen Alnaeem

Keyword(s):

Middle East ◽

One Health ◽

Close Contact ◽

Middle East Respiratory Syndrome ◽

Dromedary Camel ◽

Hyalomma Dromedarii ◽

Dromedary Camels ◽

Animal Reservoir ◽

Transmission Cycle ◽

Nasal Secretions

Abstract Objective The Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) is one of the zoonotic coronaviruses [Hemida Peer J 7:e7556, 2019; Hemida et al. One Health 8:100102, 2019]. The dromedary camels remained the only known animal reservoir for this virus. Several aspects of the transmission cycle of the virus between animals, including arthropod-borne infection, is still largely unknown. The main objective of the current work was to study the possibility of MERS-CoV transmission through some arthropod vectors, particularly the hard ticks. To achieve this objective, we identified a positive MERS-CoV dromedary camel herd using the commercial available real-time PCR kits. We collected some arthropods, particularly the ticks from these positive animals as well as from the animal habitats. We tested these arthropods for the presence of MERS-CoV viral RNAs. Results Our results showing the absence of any detectable MERS-CoV-RNAs in these arthropods despite these animals were actively shedding the virus in their nasal secretions. Our results are confirming for the first the failure of detection of the MERS-CoV in ticks infesting dromedary camels. Failure of the detection of MERS-CoV in ticks infesting positive naturally infected MERS-CoV camels is strongly suggesting that ticks do not play roles in the transmission of the virus among the animals and close contact humans.

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Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) RNA and neutralising antibodies in milk collected according to local customs from dromedary camels, Qatar, April 2014

Eurosurveillance ◽

10.2807/1560-7917.es2014.19.23.20829 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 19 (23) ◽

Cited By ~ 77

Author(s):

C B Reusken ◽

E A Farag ◽

M Jonges ◽

G J Godeke ◽

A M El-Sayed ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Middle East ◽

Middle East Respiratory Syndrome ◽

Viral Rna ◽

Dromedary Camels ◽

Neutralising Antibodies ◽

Virus Shedding ◽

Active Virus ◽

Food Borne ◽

Nasal Secretions

Antibodies to Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) were detected in serum and milk collected according to local customs from 33 camels in Qatar, April 2014. At one location, evidence for active virus shedding in nasal secretions and/or faeces was observed for 7/12 camels; viral RNA was detected in milk of five of these seven camels. The presence of MERS-CoV RNA in milk of camels actively shedding the virus warrants measures to prevent putative food-borne transmission of MERS-CoV.

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Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in Dromedary Camels in Africa and Middle East

Viruses ◽

10.3390/v11080717 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 11 (8) ◽

pp. 717 ◽

Cited By ~ 13

Author(s):

Kandeil ◽

Gomaa ◽

Nageh ◽

Shehata ◽

Kayed ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Saudi Arabia ◽

Middle East ◽

Longitudinal Studies ◽

Middle East Respiratory Syndrome ◽

East African ◽

Dromedary Camels ◽

Serum Samples ◽

African Countries ◽

Nasal Swabs ◽

Clade C

: Dromedary camels are the natural reservoirs of the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). Camels are mostly bred in East African countries then exported into Africa and Middle East for consumption. To understand the distribution of MERS-CoV among camels in North Africa and the Middle East, we conducted surveillance in Egypt, Senegal, Tunisia, Uganda, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and Iraq. We also performed longitudinal studies of three camel herds in Egypt and Jordan to elucidate MERS-CoV infection and transmission. Between 2016 and 2018, a total of 4027 nasal swabs and 3267 serum samples were collected from all countries. Real- time PCR revealed that MERS-CoV RNA was detected in nasal swab samples from Egypt, Senegal, Tunisia, and Saudi Arabia. Microneutralization assay showed that antibodies were detected in all countries. Positive PCR samples were partially sequenced, and a phylogenetic tree was built. The tree suggested that all sequences are of clade C and sequences from camels in Egypt formed a separate group from previously published sequences. Longitudinal studies showed high seroprevalence in adult camels. These results indicate the widespread distribution of the virus in camels. A systematic active surveillance and longitudinal studies for MERS-CoV are needed to understand the epidemiology of the disease and dynamics of viral infection.

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Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in dromedary camels in Nigeria, 2015

Eurosurveillance ◽

10.2807/1560-7917.es.2015.20.49.30086 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 20 (49) ◽

Cited By ~ 37

Author(s):

Daniel KW Chu ◽

Jamiu O Oladipo ◽

Ranawaka APM Perera ◽

Sulaiman A Kuranga ◽

Samuel MS Chan ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Middle East ◽

Arabian Peninsula ◽

Phylogenetic Analyses ◽

Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction ◽

Middle East Respiratory Syndrome ◽

Dromedary Camels ◽

Chain Reaction ◽

Serum Samples ◽

Nasal Swabs ◽

Polymerase Chain

Evidence of current and past Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) infection in dromedary camels slaughtered at an abattoir in Kano, Nigeria in January 2015, was sought by reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and serology. MERS-CoV RNA was detected in 14 (11%) of 132 nasal swabs and antibody in 126 (96%) of 131 serum samples. Phylogenetic analyses demonstrate that the viruses in Nigeria are genetically distinct from those reported in the Arabian peninsula.

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Lack of serological evidence of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection in virus exposed camel abattoir workers in Nigeria, 2016

Eurosurveillance ◽

10.2807/1560-7917.es.2018.23.32.1800175 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 23 (32) ◽

Cited By ~ 12

Author(s):

Ray TY So ◽

Ranawaka APM Perera ◽

Jamiu O Oladipo ◽

Daniel KW Chu ◽

Sulyman A Kuranga ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Middle East ◽

Middle East Respiratory Syndrome ◽

Health Concern ◽

Global Public Health ◽

Zoonotic Infection ◽

Dromedary Camels ◽

Rna Detection ◽

Nasal Swabs ◽

Coronavirus Infection ◽

Abattoir Workers

Background Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) is a zoonotic threat of global public health concern and dromedary camels are the source of zoonotic infection. Although MERS-CoV is enzootic in dromedaries in Africa as well as the Middle East, zoonotic disease has not been reported in Africa. Methods: In an abattoir in Kano, Nigeria, we tested nasal swabs from camels and investigated 261 humans with repeated occupational exposure to camels, many of whom also reported drinking fresh camel milk (n = 138) or urine (n = 94) or using camel urine for medicinal purposes (n = 96). Results: Weekly MERS-CoV RNA detection in January–February 2016 ranged from 0–8.4% of camels sampled. None of the abattoir workers with exposure to camels had evidence of neutralising antibody to MERS-CoV. Conclusion: There is a need for more studies to investigate whether or not zoonotic transmission of MERS-CoV does take place in Africa.

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Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Quasispecies That Include Homologues of Human Isolates Revealed through Whole-Genome Analysis and Virus Cultured from Dromedary Camels in Saudi Arabia

mBio ◽

10.1128/mbio.01146-14 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 5 (3) ◽

Cited By ~ 105

Author(s):

Thomas Briese ◽

Nischay Mishra ◽

Komal Jain ◽

Iyad S. Zalmout ◽

Omar J. Jabado ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Saudi Arabia ◽

Middle East ◽

Human Infection ◽

Middle East Respiratory Syndrome ◽

Interspecies Transmission ◽

Whole Genome ◽

Genome Sequences ◽

Dromedary Camels ◽

Kingdom Of Saudi Arabia ◽

Nasal Swabs

ABSTRACTComplete Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) genome sequences were obtained from nasal swabs of dromedary camels sampled in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia through direct analysis of nucleic acid extracts or following virus isolation in cell culture. Consensus dromedary MERS-CoV genome sequences were the same with either template source and identical to published human MERS-CoV sequences. However, in contrast to individual human cases, where only clonal genomic sequences are reported, detailed population analyses revealed the presence of more than one genomic variant in individual dromedaries. If humans are truly infected only with clonal virus populations, we must entertain a model for interspecies transmission of MERS-CoV wherein only specific genotypes are capable of passing bottleneck selection.IMPORTANCEIn most cases of Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), the route for human infection with the causative agent, MERS coronavirus (MERS-CoV), is unknown. Antibodies to and viral nucleic acids of MERS-CoV have been found in dromedaries, suggesting the possibility that they may serve as a reservoir or vector for human infection. However, neither whole viral genomic sequence nor infectious virus has been isolated from dromedaries or other animals in Saudi Arabia. Here, we report recovery of MERS-CoV from nasal swabs of dromedaries, demonstrate that MERS-CoV whole-genome consensus sequences from dromedaries and humans are indistinguishable, and show that dromedaries can be simultaneously infected with more than one MERS-CoV. Together with data indicating widespread dromedary infection in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, these findings support the plausibility of a role for dromedaries in human infection.

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Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus and the One Health concept

PeerJ ◽

10.7717/peerj.7556 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 7 ◽

pp. e7556 ◽

Cited By ~ 13

Author(s):

Maged Gomaa Hemida

Keyword(s):

Middle East ◽

One Health ◽

Close Contact ◽

Significant Risk ◽

Middle East Respiratory Syndrome ◽

Dromedary Camel ◽

Animal Reservoir ◽

In Vivo Models ◽

Health Concept ◽

The One

Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) is one of the major threats to the healthcare systems in some countries, especially in the Arabian Peninsula. MERS-CoV is considered an ideal example of the One Health concept. This is due to the animals, especially dromedary camels, play important roles in the transmission and sustainability of the virus, and the virus can be transmitted through aerosols of infected patients into the environment. However, there is some debate regarding the origin of MERS-CoV either from bats or other unknown reservoirs. The dromedary camel is the only identified animal reservoir to date. These animals play important roles in sustaining the virus in certain communities and may act as an amplifier of the virus by secreting it in their body fluids, especially in nasal and rectal discharges. MERS-CoV has been detected in the nasal and rectal secretions of infected camels, and MERS-CoV of this origin has full capacity to infect human airway epithelium in both in vitro and in vivo models. Other evidence confirms the direct transmission of MERS-CoV from camels to humans, though the role of camel meat and milk products has yet to be well studied. Human-to-human transmission is well documented through contact with an active infected patient or some silently infected persons. Furthermore, there are some significant risk factors of individuals in close contact with a positive MERS-CoV patient, including sleeping in the same patient room, removing patient waste (urine, stool, and sputum), and touching respiratory secretions from the index case. Outbreaks within family clusters have been reported, whereby some blood relative patients were infected through their wives in the same house were not infected. Some predisposing genetic factors favor MERS-CoV infection in some patients, which is worth investigating in the near future. The presence of other comorbidities may be another factor. Overall, there are many unknown/confirmed aspects of the virus/human/animal network. Here, the most recent advances in this context are discussed, and the possible reasons behind the emergence and sustainability of MERS-CoV in certain regions are presented. Identification of the exact mechanism of transmission of MERS-CoV from camels to humans and searching for new reservoir/s are of high priority. This will reduce the shedding of the virus into the environment, and thus the risk of human infection can be mitigated.

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Limited Genetic Diversity Detected in Middle East Respiratory Syndrome-Related Coronavirus Variants Circulating in Dromedary Camels in Jordan

Viruses ◽

10.3390/v13040592 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 13 (4) ◽

pp. 592

Author(s):

Stephanie N. Seifert ◽

Jonathan E. Schulz ◽

Stacy Ricklefs ◽

Michael Letko ◽

Elangeni Yabba ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Genetic Diversity ◽

Middle East ◽

United Arab Emirates ◽

Sequence Data ◽

Case Fatality ◽

High Sensitivity ◽

Middle East Respiratory Syndrome ◽

Full Genome Sequence ◽

Genome Sequences ◽

Dromedary Camels

Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (MERS-CoV) is a persistent zoonotic pathogen with frequent spillover from dromedary camels to humans in the Arabian Peninsula, resulting in limited outbreaks of MERS with a high case-fatality rate. Full genome sequence data from camel-derived MERS-CoV variants show diverse lineages circulating in domestic camels with frequent recombination. More than 90% of the available full MERS-CoV genome sequences derived from camels are from just two countries, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) and United Arab Emirates (UAE). In this study, we employ a novel method to amplify and sequence the partial MERS-CoV genome with high sensitivity from nasal swabs of infected camels. We recovered more than 99% of the MERS-CoV genome from field-collected samples with greater than 500 TCID50 equivalent per nasal swab from camel herds sampled in Jordan in May 2016. Our subsequent analyses of 14 camel-derived MERS-CoV genomes show a striking lack of genetic diversity circulating in Jordan camels relative to MERS-CoV genome sequences derived from large camel markets in KSA and UAE. The low genetic diversity detected in Jordan camels during our study is consistent with a lack of endemic circulation in these camel herds and reflective of data from MERS outbreaks in humans dominated by nosocomial transmission following a single introduction as reported during the 2015 MERS outbreak in South Korea. Our data suggest transmission of MERS-CoV among two camel herds in Jordan in 2016 following a single introduction event.

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An Observational, Laboratory-Based Study of Outbreaks of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus in Jeddah and Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 2014

Clinical Infectious Diseases ◽

10.1093/cid/ciu812 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 60 (3) ◽

pp. 369-377 ◽

Cited By ~ 114

Author(s):

Christian Drosten ◽

Doreen Muth ◽

Victor M. Corman ◽

Raheela Hussain ◽

Malaki Al Masri ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Saudi Arabia ◽

Middle East ◽

Middle East Respiratory Syndrome ◽

Nosocomial Transmission ◽

Interferon Response ◽

Nucleotide Polymorphisms ◽

Diagnostic Laboratory ◽

Virus Shedding ◽

Negative Results ◽

Sudden Rise

Abstract Background. In spring 2014, a sudden rise in the number of notified Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) infections occurred across Saudi Arabia with a focus in Jeddah. Hypotheses to explain the outbreak pattern include increased surveillance, increased zoonotic transmission, nosocomial transmission, and changes in viral transmissibility, as well as diagnostic laboratory artifacts. Methods. Diagnostic results from Jeddah Regional Laboratory were analyzed. Viruses from the Jeddah outbreak and viruses occurring during the same time in Riyadh, Al-Kharj, and Madinah were fully or partially sequenced. A set of 4 single-nucleotide polymorphisms distinctive to the Jeddah outbreak were determined from additional viruses. Viruses from Riyadh and Jeddah were isolated and studied in cell culture. Results. Up to 481 samples were received per day for reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) testing. A laboratory proficiency assessment suggested positive and negative results to be reliable. Forty-nine percent of 168 positive-testing samples during the Jeddah outbreak stemmed from King Fahd Hospital. All viruses from Jeddah were monophyletic and similar, whereas viruses from Riyadh were paraphyletic and diverse. A hospital-associated transmission cluster, to which cases in Indiana (United States) and the Netherlands belonged, was discovered in Riyadh. One Jeddah-type virus was found in Riyadh, with matching travel history to Jeddah. Virus isolates representing outbreaks in Jeddah and Riyadh were not different from MERS-CoV EMC/2012 in replication, escape of interferon response, or serum neutralization. Conclusions. Virus shedding and virus functions did not change significantly during the outbreak in Jeddah. These results suggest the outbreaks to have been caused by biologically unchanged viruses in connection with nosocomial transmission.

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