scholarly journals Reducing the population's sodium intake: the UK Food Standards Agency's salt reduction programme

2011 ◽  
Vol 15 (2) ◽  
pp. 254-261 ◽  
Author(s):  
Laura A Wyness ◽  
Judith L Butriss ◽  
Sara A Stanner
Keyword(s):  
Blood Pressure ◽  
Salt Intake ◽  
Sodium Intake ◽  
Salt Reduction ◽  
Campaign Evaluation ◽  
Food Standards ◽  
Reporting Framework ◽  
Population Average ◽  
Scientific Papers ◽  
The Uk

AbstractObjectiveTo describe the UK Food Standards Agency's (FSA) salt reduction programme undertaken between 2003 and 2010 and to discuss its effectiveness.DesignRelevant scientific papers, campaign materials and evaluations and consultation responses to the FSA's salt reduction programme were used.SettingAdult salt intakes, monitored using urinary Na data collected from UK-wide surveys, indicate a statistically significant reduction in the population's average salt intake from 9·5 g/d in 2000–2001 to 8·6 g/d in 2008, which is likely to have health benefits.SubjectsReducing salt intake will have an impact on blood pressure; an estimated 6 % of deaths from CHD in the UK can be avoided if the number of people with high blood pressure is reduced by 50 %.ResultsSalt levels in food, monitored using commercial label data and information collected through an industry self-reporting framework, indicated that substantial reductions of up to 70 % in some foods had been achieved. The FSA's consumer campaign evaluation showed increased awareness of the benefits of reducing salt intake on health, with 43 % of adults in 2009 claiming to have made a special effort to reduce salt in their diet compared with 34 % of adults in 2004, before the campaign commenced.ConclusionsThe UK's salt reduction programme successfully reduced the average salt intake of the population and increased consumers’ awareness. Significant challenges remain in achieving the population average salt intake of 6 g/d recommended by the UK's Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition. However, the UK has demonstrated the success of its programme and this approach is now being implemented elsewhere in the world.

scholarly journals Estimation of salt intake, potassium intake and sodium-to-potassium ratio by 24-hour urinary excretion: an urban rural study in Sri Lanka

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
R Jayatissa ◽  
Y Yamori ◽  
AH De Silva ◽  
M Mori ◽  
PC De Silva ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Blood Pressure ◽  
Waist Circumference ◽  
Sri Lanka ◽  
Salt Intake ◽  
Sodium Intake ◽  
Dietary Sodium ◽  
Sodium Potassium ◽  
Salt Reduction ◽  
Potassium Intake ◽  
Salt Consumption

AbstractBackgroundSodium intakes of different populations around the world became of interest after a positive correlation was drawn between dietary sodium intake and prevalence of hypertension. Sri Lanka has adopted a salt reduction strategy to combat high blood pressure in the population with escalation of non-communicable diseases.ObjectiveTo measure intake of salt, potassium and sodium/potassium ratio of adults in urban and rural settings.DesignA community based study of 328 adults between 30-59 years, including equal numbers from urban and rural sectors. Weight, height and waist circumference were measured. Blood pressure was measured by a standardized automated measurement system and the mean of two readings was used for analysis. 24-hour urine was collected and measured for creatinine, sodium, potassium levels.ResultsMean daily salt consumption was 8.3g (95%CI:7.9,8.8), which is 1.6 times higher than WHO recommendation. Mean daily potassium intake was 1,265g (95%CI:1191.0,1339.3), which is 2.8 times lower and sodium/potassium ratio was 4.3 (95%CI:4.2,4.5), which is 7 times higher than WHO recommendation. Daily salt consumption was significantly higher in males (9.0g;95%CI:8.3,9.8) than females (7.7g;95%CI:7.2,8.2); rural (8.9g;95%CI:8.2-9.6,) than urban (7.7g;95%CI:7.2,8.3) with increasing body mass index (8.2g;95%CI:6.1,10.2 to 10.0g;95%CI:8.5,11.6). Systolic blood pressure was significantly positively correlated with high BMI and waist circumference.ConclusionsHigh salt consumption, low potassium intake and high sodium/potassium ratio was found in this population. This information can be used to set targets to reduce salt intake in the population. Need to create awareness to enhance the consumption of potassium rich food while reducing salt intake to minimize future NCD burden.

scholarly journals Positive and Negative Aspects of Sodium Intake in Dialysis and Non-Dialysis CKD Patients

Nutrients ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 13 (3) ◽  
pp. 951
Author(s):  
Yasuyuki Nagasawa
Keyword(s):  
Blood Pressure ◽  
Nutritional Status ◽  
Water Intake ◽  
Salt Intake ◽  
Sodium Intake ◽  
Extracellular Fluid ◽  
Sodium Restriction ◽  
Dialysis Patients ◽  
Positive Effects ◽  
Volume Blood

Sodium intake theoretically has dual effects on both non-dialysis chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients and dialysis patients. One negatively affects mortality by increasing proteinuria and blood pressure. The other positively affects mortality by ameliorating nutritional status through appetite induced by salt intake and the amount of food itself, which is proportional to the amount of salt under the same salty taste. Sodium restriction with enough water intake easily causes hyponatremia in CKD and dialysis patients. Moreover, the balance of these dual effects in dialysis patients is likely different from their balance in non-dialysis CKD patients because dialysis patients lose kidney function. Sodium intake is strongly related to water intake via the thirst center. Therefore, sodium intake is strongly related to extracellular fluid volume, blood pressure, appetite, nutritional status, and mortality. To decrease mortality in both non-dialysis and dialysis CKD patients, sodium restriction is an essential and important factor that can be changed by the patients themselves. However, under sodium restriction, it is important to maintain the balance of negative and positive effects from sodium intake not only in dialysis and non-dialysis CKD patients but also in the general population.

scholarly journals Salt Intake in Nigeria: a nationwide population survey

2020 ◽  
Vol 41 (Supplement_2) ◽  
Author(s):  
A.N Odili ◽  
B.S Chori ◽  
B Danladi ◽  
P.C Nwakile ◽  
J.O Ogedengbe ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Salt Intake ◽  
Sodium Intake ◽  
Population Analysis ◽  
Cost Effective ◽  
Rural Site ◽  
Urban Site ◽  
Funding Source ◽  
Salt Reduction ◽  
High Salt Intake ◽  
The Impact

Abstract Background Population wide salt reduction programmes are cost effective strategies for control of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Obtaining a nationwide salt consumption data in a multi-cultural setting as Nigeria's is key for proper implementation and monitoring of such strategy. Methods We measured sodium in 24-hour urine of free-living adult Nigerians selected from an urban and a rural site each from the 6 geopolitical zones of Nigeria to evaluate patterns of salt intake and its associations with blood pressures (BP). Results Across the 12 sites, sodium intake ranged from 97.9 in the rural South-South to 210 mmol/day in the urban site of the same zone. Overall, the median (IQR) daily sodium intake was 143.5 (97.8) mmol; with higher (p=0.0028) levels among the urban 149.7 (113.8) compared to the rural 133.1 (105.2) dwellers. Overall, 20% of the subjects consumed less than the recommended 2g (86mmol) of sodium daily. After adjustment for age, sex and BMI; sodium intake and BP (systolic and diastolic) were positively associated in 8 out of the 12 sites; significantly so in 2 (p<0.05) for systolic. Within population analysis; which included 973 individuals, increasing sodium intake tended (not significantly) to increase SBP but decrease DBP. However, among subjects whose sodium intake was in excess of 257mmol/day, a 100 mmol/day increase in sodium intake was significantly (p=0.04) associated with a 3.3 mmHg increase in SBP. Conclusion Salt intake among Nigerians is higher than the recommended. The impact of sodium intake on BP appears to be evident only among individuals with high salt intake. Funding Acknowledgement Type of funding source: Foundation. Main funding source(s): Wellcome Trust

scholarly journals Potential impact of a modest reduction in salt intake on blood pressure, cardiovascular disease burden and premature mortality: a modelling study

Open Heart ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 6 (1) ◽  
pp. e000943 ◽  
Author(s):  
Leopold Ndemnge Aminde ◽  
Linda J Cobiac ◽  
J Lennert Veerman
Keyword(s):  
Blood Pressure ◽  
Cardiovascular Disease ◽  
Heart Disease ◽  
Salt Intake ◽  
Sodium Intake ◽  
Premature Mortality ◽  
Relative Reduction ◽  
Life Years ◽  
Potential Impact ◽  
The Impact

ObjectiveTo assess the potential impact of reduction in salt intake on the burden of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and premature mortality in Cameroon.MethodsUsing a multicohort proportional multistate life table model with Markov process, we modelled the impact of WHO’s recommended 30% relative reduction in population-wide sodium intake on the CVD burden for Cameroonian adults alive in 2016. Deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were conducted and used to quantify uncertainty.ResultsOver the lifetime, incidence is predicted to decrease by 5.2% (95% uncertainty interval (UI) 4.6 to 5.7) for ischaemic heart disease (IHD), 6.6% (95% UI 5.9 to 7.4) for haemorrhagic strokes, 4.8% (95% UI 4.2 to 5.4) for ischaemic strokes and 12.9% (95% UI 12.4 to 13.5) for hypertensive heart disease (HHD). Mortality over the lifetime is projected to reduce by 5.1% (95% UI 4.5 to 5.6) for IHD, by 6.9% (95% UI 6.1 to 7.7) for haemorrhagic stroke, by 4.5% (95% UI 4.0 to 5.1) for ischaemic stroke and by 13.3% (95% UI 12.9 to 13.7) for HHD. About 776 400 (95% UI 712 600 to 841 200) health-adjusted life years could be gained, and life expectancy might increase by 0.23 years and 0.20 years for men and women, respectively. A projected 16.8% change (reduction) between 2016 and 2030 in probability of premature mortality due to CVD would occur if population salt reduction recommended by WHO is attained.ConclusionAchieving the 30% reduction in sodium intake recommended by WHO could considerably decrease the burden of CVD. Targeting blood pressure via decreasing population salt intake could translate in significant reductions in premature CVD mortality in Cameroon by 2030.

Blood Pressure and Intra-Erythrocyte Sodium during Normal and High Salt Intake in Middle-Aged Men: Relationship to Family History of Hypertension, and Neurogenic and Hormonal Variables

1984 ◽  
Vol 66 (4) ◽  
pp. 427-433 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ottar Gudmundsson ◽  
Hans Herlitz ◽  
Olof Jonsson ◽  
Thomas Hedner ◽  
Ove Andersson ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Blood Pressure ◽  
Family History ◽  
Salt Intake ◽  
Sodium Intake ◽  
Positive Family History ◽  
Sodium Content ◽  
High Salt Intake ◽  
History Of ◽  
Family History Of Hypertension ◽  
Erythrocyte Sodium

1. During 4 weeks 37 normotensive 50-year-old men identified by screening in a random population sample were given 12 g of NaCl daily, in addition to their usual dietary sodium intake. Blood pressure, heart rate, weight, urinary excretion of sodium, potassium and catecholamines, plasma aldosterone and noradrenaline and intra-erythrocyte sodium content were determined on normal and increased salt intake. The subjects were divided into those with a positive family history of hypertension (n = 11) and those without such a history (n = 26). 2. Systolic blood pressure and weight increased significantly irrespective of a positive family history of hypertension. 3. On normal salt intake intra-erythrocyte sodium content was significantly higher in those with a positive family history of hypertension. During high salt intake intra-erythrocyte sodium content decreased significantly in that group and the difference between the hereditary subgroups was no longer significant. 4. In the whole group urinary excretion of noradrenaline, adrenaline and dopamine increased whereas plasma aldosterone decreased during the increased salt intake. 5. Thus, in contrast to some earlier studies performed in young subjects, our results indicate that moderately increased sodium intake acts as a pressor agent in normotensive middle-aged men whether there was a positive family history of hypertension or not. We confirm that men with positive family history of hypertension have an increased intra-erythrocyte sodium content, and that an increase in salt intake seems to increase overall sympathetic activity.

scholarly journals Protocol for the Process Evaluation of a Complex, Statewide Intervention to Reduce Salt Intake in Victoria, Australia

Nutrients ◽  
2018 ◽  
Vol 10 (8) ◽  
pp. 998 ◽  
Author(s):  
Kathy Trieu ◽  
Stephen Jan ◽  
Mark Woodward ◽  
Carley Grimes ◽  
Bruce Bolam ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Process Evaluation ◽  
Complex Disease ◽  
Salt Intake ◽  
Complex Interventions ◽  
Reduction Process ◽  
Population Based ◽  
Structured Interviews ◽  
Salt Reduction ◽  
Campaign Evaluation ◽  
Reduced Salt

Systematic reviews of trials consistently demonstrate that reducing salt intake lowers blood pressure. However, there is limited evidence on how interventions function in the real world to achieve sustained population-wide salt reduction. Process evaluations are crucial for understanding how and why an intervention resulted in its observed effect in that setting, particularly for complex interventions. This project presents the detailed protocol for a process evaluation of a statewide strategy to lower salt intake in Victoria, Australia. We describe the pragmatic methods used to collect and analyse data on six process evaluation dimensions: reach, dose or adoption, fidelity, effectiveness, context and cost, informed by Linnan and Steckler’s framework and RE-AIM. Data collection methods include routinely collected administrative data; surveys of processed foods, the population, food industry and organizations; targeted campaign evaluation and semi-structured interviews. Quantitative and qualitative data will be triangulated to provide validation or context for one another. This process evaluation will contribute new knowledge about what components of the intervention are important to salt reduction strategies and how the interventions cause reduced salt intake, to inform the transferability of the program to other Australian states and territories. This protocol can be adapted for other population-based, complex, disease prevention interventions.

scholarly journals Change in Salt Intake Affects Blood Pressure of Chimpanzees

Circulation ◽  
2007 ◽  
Vol 116 (14) ◽  
pp. 1563-1568 ◽  
Author(s):  
Paul Elliott ◽  
Lesley L. Walker ◽  
Mark P. Little ◽  
John R. Blair-West ◽  
Robert E. Shade ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Blood Pressure ◽  
Confidence Interval ◽  
Human Population ◽  
Salt Intake ◽  
Homo Sapiens ◽  
Sodium Intake ◽  
Systolic Pressure ◽  
Sodium Content ◽  
Standard Diet ◽  
Arterial Blood

Background— Addition of up to 15.0 g/d salt to the diet of chimpanzees caused large rises in blood pressure, which reversed when the added salt was removed. Effects of more modest alterations to sodium intakes in chimpanzees, akin to current efforts to lower sodium intakes in the human population, are unknown. Methods and Results— Sodium intakes were altered among 17 chimpanzees in Franceville, Gabon, and 110 chimpanzees in Bastrop, Tex. In Gabon, chimpanzees had a biscuit diet of constant nutrient composition except that the sodium content was changed episodically over 3 years from 75 to 35 to 120 mmol/d. In Bastrop, animals were divided into 2 groups; 1 group continued on the standard diet of 250 mmol/d sodium for 2 years, and sodium intake was halved for the other group. Lower sodium intake was associated with lower systolic, diastolic, and mean arterial blood pressures in Gabon (2-tailed P <0.001, unadjusted and adjusted for age, sex, and baseline weight) and Bastrop ( P <0.01, unadjusted; P =0.08 to 0.10, adjusted), with no threshold down to 35 mmol/d sodium. For systolic pressure, estimates were −12.7 mm Hg (95% confidence interval, −16.9 to −8.5, adjusted) per 100 mmol/d lower sodium in Gabon and −10.9 mm Hg (95% confidence interval, −18.9 to −2.9, unadjusted) and −5.7 mm Hg (95% confidence interval, −12.2 to 0.7, adjusted) for sodium intake lower by 122 mmol/d in Bastrop. Baseline systolic pressures higher by 10 mm Hg were associated with larger falls in systolic pressure by 4.3/2.9 mm Hg in Gabon/Bastrop per 100 mmol/d lower sodium. Conclusions— These findings from an essentially single-variable experiment in the species closest to Homo sapiens with high intakes of calcium and potassium support intensified public health efforts to lower sodium intake in the human population.

Sodium and potassium intake, blood pressure, and cardiovascular prevention

ESC CardioMed ◽  
2018 ◽  
pp. 2431-2444
Author(s):  
Francesco P. Cappuccio
Keyword(s):  
Blood Pressure ◽  
Cardiovascular Disease ◽  
World Health Organization ◽  
Salt Intake ◽  
World Health ◽  
Salt Reduction ◽  
Potassium Intake ◽  
Salt Consumption ◽  
The World ◽  
Health Organization

Salt consumption is now much greater than needed for survival. High salt intake increases blood pressure in both animals and humans. Conversely, a reduction in salt intake causes a dose-dependent reduction in blood pressure in men and women of all ages and ethnic groups, and in patients already on medication. The risk of strokes and heart attacks rises with increasing blood pressure, but can be decreased by antihypertensive drugs. However, most cardiovascular disease events occur in individuals with ‘normal’ blood pressure levels. Non-pharmacological prevention is therefore the only option to reduce such events. Reduction in population salt intake reduces the number of vascular events. It is one of the most important public health measures to reduce the global cardiovascular burden. Salt reduction policies are powerful, rapid, equitable, and cost saving. The World Health Organization recommends reducing salt consumption below 5 g per day aiming at a global 30% reduction by 2025. A high potassium intake lowers blood pressure in people with and without hypertension. Its beneficial effects extend beyond blood pressure, and may include a reduction in the risk of stroke (independent of blood pressure changes). Potassium intake in the Western world is relatively low, and a lower potassium intake is associated with increased risks of cardiovascular disease, especially stroke. A moderate increase in potassium intake, either as supplement or with diet, reduces blood pressure, and the World Health Organization has issued global recommendations for a target dietary potassium intake of at least 90 mmol/day (≥3510 mg/day) for adults.

Sodium Knowledge, Beliefs, and Behaviors in Patients on Chronic Hemodialysis

2019 ◽  
Vol 49 (1-2) ◽  
pp. 25-32
Author(s):  
Zorica Kauric-Klein
Keyword(s):  
Blood Pressure ◽  
Health Care ◽  
Health Care Providers ◽  
Salt Intake ◽  
Sodium Intake ◽  
Chronic Hemodialysis ◽  
Care Providers ◽  
And Behaviors ◽  
The Relationship ◽  
Total Sodium

Introduction: There is a clear relationship between sodium intake and blood pressure in patients on chronic hemodialysis (HEMO). To date, there are few studies that assess sodium knowledge, beliefs, and behaviors in patients on chronic HEMO. The purpose of this research study was to determine sodium knowledge, beliefs and behaviors in patients on chronic HEMO. Methods: A descriptive correlational study was conducted using an investigator developed online sodium knowledge, beliefs, and behaviors survey. Participants were recruited via nephrology social media websites. Findings: One hundred and fourteen participants completed the survey, the majority of participants (n = 39, 34.2%) were between the ages of 36 and 50 years, 55.3% (n = 63) were female, and 70% (n = 80) were white. Fifty-four participants (47%) could not identify their recommended salt intake limit. Participants answered an average of 4 out of 7 questions pertaining to sodium knowledge correctly (SD 1.5). Increased age was associated with total sodium knowledge (r = 0.33, p= 0.01) and length of time on HEMO was related to total sodium knowledge (r = –0.20, p = 0.04). In terms of beliefs, 38% (n = 44) were unsure or did not believe that salt intake was related to blood pressure and 30% (n = 33) did not feel it was related to fluid gains. Forty-two participants (37%) responded that they were not informed by a health care provider to cut down their salt intake. Discussion: Knowledge about sodium levels is lacking in patients on chronic HEMO. Patients may be more likely to decrease their sodium intake if they know their recommended sodium levels. Health care providers are not doing enough to educate patients on the need to decrease sodium intake and reinforce the relationship between sodium intake, fluid gains, and blood pressure. Findings from this study are useful to help develop educational programs to target these knowledge needs.

scholarly journals Sodium Intake and Hypertension

Nutrients ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 11 (9) ◽  
pp. 1970 ◽  
Author(s):  
Grillo ◽  
Salvi ◽  
Coruzzi ◽  
Salvi ◽  
Parati
Keyword(s):  
Blood Pressure ◽  
Salt Intake ◽  
Sodium Intake ◽  
Peripheral Resistance ◽  
Dietary Sodium ◽  
Dietary Salt ◽  
High Sodium ◽  
Close Relationship ◽  
And Function ◽  
Modest Reduction

The close relationship between hypertension and dietary sodium intake is widely recognized and supported by several studies. A reduction in dietary sodium not only decreases the blood pressure and the incidence of hypertension, but is also associated with a reduction in morbidity and mortality from cardiovascular diseases. Prolonged modest reduction in salt intake induces a relevant fall in blood pressure in both hypertensive and normotensive individuals, irrespective of sex and ethnic group, with larger falls in systolic blood pressure for larger reductions in dietary salt. The high sodium intake and the increase in blood pressure levels are related to water retention, increase in systemic peripheral resistance, alterations in the endothelial function, changes in the structure and function of large elastic arteries, modification in sympathetic activity, and in the autonomic neuronal modulation of the cardiovascular system. In this review, we have focused on the effects of sodium intake on vascular hemodynamics and their implication in the pathogenesis of hypertension.

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