Breakfast consumption and CVD risk factors in European adolescents: the HELENA (Healthy Lifestyle in Europe by Nutrition in Adolescence) Study

AbstractObjectiveTo examine the association between breakfast consumption and CVD risk factors in European adolescents.DesignCross-sectional. Breakfast consumption was assessed by the statement ‘I often skip breakfast’ and categorized into ‘consumer’, ‘occasional consumer’ and ‘skipper’. Blood pressure, weight, height, waist circumference, skinfold thickness, total cholesterol (TC), HDL cholesterol (HDL-C), LDL cholesterol (LDL-C), TAG, insulin and glucose were measured and BMI, TC:HDL-C, LDL-C:HDL-C and homeostasis model assessment–insulin resistance index (HOMA-IR) were calculated.SettingThe European Union-funded HELENA (Healthy Lifestyle in Europe by Nutrition in Adolescence) Study.SubjectsEuropean adolescents, aged 12·50–17·49 years, from ten cities within the HELENA study (n2929,n925 with blood sample, 53 % females).ResultsIn males, significant differences across breakfast consumption category (‘consumer’, ‘occasional consumer’ and ‘skipper’) were seen for age, BMI, skinfold thickness, waist circumference, cardiorespiratory fitness, systolic and diastolic blood pressures, TC:HDL-C, LDL-C:HDL-C, glucose, insulin, HOMA-IR and LDL-C; in females, for cardiorespiratory fitness, skinfold thickness, BMI, insulin and HOMA-IR. In overweight/obese males significant differences were also seen for TC and LDL-C, whereas no differences were observed in non-overweight males or in females regardless of weight status.ConclusionsOur findings among European adolescents confirm previous data indicating that adolescents who regularly consume breakfast have lower body fat content. The results also show that regular breakfast consumption is associated with higher cardiorespiratory fitness in adolescents, and with a healthier cardiovascular profile, especially in males. Eating breakfast regularly may also negate somewhat the effect of excess adiposity on TC and LDL-C, especially in male adolescents.

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Low cardiorespiratory fitness is a strong predictor for clustering of cardiovascular disease risk factors in children independent of country, age and sex

European Journal of Cardiovascular Prevention & Rehabilitation ◽

10.1097/hjr.0b013e328011efc1 ◽

2007 ◽

Vol 14 (4) ◽

pp. 526-531 ◽

Cited By ~ 183

Author(s):

Sigmund A. Anderssen ◽

Ashley R. Cooper ◽

Chris Riddoch ◽

Luis B. Sardinha ◽

Maarike Harro ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Risk Factors ◽

Cardiovascular Disease ◽

Cardiorespiratory Fitness ◽

Disease Risk ◽

Strong Predictor ◽

Cardiovascular Disease Risk ◽

Model Assessment ◽

Cvd Risk Factors ◽

Cvd Risk ◽

Age And Sex

Background and design Few studies have investigated the association between maximal cardiorespiratory capacity (fitness) and the clustered cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk in children and youth from culturally diverse countries. This cross-sectional study examined the association between fitness and clustered CVD risk in children and adolescents from three European countries. Methods Participants were 2845 randomly selected school children aged 9 or 15 years from Portugal ( n = 944), Denmark ( n = 849) and Estonia ( n = 1052). Cardiorespiratory fitness was determined during a maximal test on a cycle ergometer. CVD risk factors selected to assess the degree of clustering were the total cholesterol/high-density lipoprotein cholesterol ratio, plasma triglycerides, insulin resistance (homeostasis model assessment), sum of four skinfolds, and systolic blood pressure. Results There was a strong association between cardiorespiratory fitness and the clustering of CVD risk factors. The odds ratios for clustering in each quartile of fitness, using the quartile with the highest fitness as reference, were 13.0 [95% confidence interval (CI) 8.8-19.1]; 4.8 (95% CI 3.2-7.1) and 2.5 (95% CI 1.6-3.8), respectively, after adjusting for country, age, sex, socio-economic status, pubertal stage, family history of CVD and diabetes. In stratified analyses by age group, sex and country, similar strong patterns were observed. Conclusion Low cardiorespiratory fitness is strongly associated with the clustering of CVD risk factors in children independent of country, age and sex.

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POS0486 FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH CHRONOTROPIC RESPONSE IN PEOPLE WITH RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS

Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases ◽

10.1136/annrheumdis-2021-eular.3050 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 80 (Suppl 1) ◽

pp. 475.2-476

Author(s):

A. Osailan

Keyword(s):

Rheumatoid Arthritis ◽

Risk Factors ◽

Cardiorespiratory Fitness ◽

Inflammatory Markers ◽

Exercise Intolerance ◽

Cvd Risk Factors ◽

Cvd Risk ◽

Chronotropic Response ◽

Factors Associated ◽

The University

Background:People with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) are at high risk for cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and CVD mortality. Reduced Chronotropic response (CR), which produces exercise intolerance, is known as a contributing factor to CVD and mortality. Studies have shown that people with RA have reduced CR. However, knowledge about the factors associated with CR in people with RA is limited.Objectives:To explore the factors associated with CR including CVD risk factors, inflammatory markers and cardiorespiratory fitness (VO2 peak).Methods:106 people with RA completed a treadmill exercise tolerance test while heart rate (HR) was monitored via 12 leads ECG. CR was defined as the percentage of [(achieved peak HR minus resting HR) divided by (age-predicted maximum HR minus resting HR)]. Serological CVD risk factors and inflammatory markers including lipids profile, markers of insulin resistance and sensitivity (HOMA, QUICKi), high sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), fibrinogen and white blood cells (WBC) were examined via a fasted blood sample. VO2 peak was assessed via breath-by-breath gas analysis.Results:34% had reduced CR based on the cut-off value (≤ 80%) and the average CR was 86.2 ± 21%. Body mass index (r=-0.33, p=.001), HOMA (r=-0.26, p=.009), hsCRP (r=-0.23, p=.02), ESR (r=-0.21, p=.04), fibrinogen (r=-0.2, p=.05), WBC (r=-0.21, p=.04) were inversely associated with CR, whereas, high density lipoprotein (HDL) (r=0.43, p<.001), QUICKi (r=0.31, p=.002), and VO2 peak (r=0.4, p<.001) were positively associated with CR. When all the variables were entered into a stepwise linear regression, HDL (p<.001) and VO2 peak (p=.009) were independently associated with CR.Conclusion:The current findings suggest that CR in RA was associated with many CVD risk factors, inflammatory markers, and cardiorespiratory fitness. Among all the varibales, HDL and cardiorespiratory fitness were moderately and independently associated with CR. Future studies should investigate the effect of improving these associated variables on CR in people with RA via exercise training programes.Acknowledgements:Thanks to physical activity in Rheumatoid arthritis research team and Research department in Dudley Hospital. Sincere appreciation and gratitude to Dr Jet Veldhuizen van Zanten, Prof. Joan Duda, and Prof. George Kitas from the University of Birmingham and Prof. George Metsios from the University of Wolverhampton.Disclosure of Interests:None declared

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Abstract MP081: Association between Sleep Characteristics and Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors in a Population Sample: Chicago Area Sleep Study

Circulation ◽

10.1161/circ.125.suppl_10.amp081 ◽

2012 ◽

Vol 125 (suppl_10) ◽

Author(s):

Mercedes Carnethon ◽

Kristen L Knutson ◽

Peter J de Chavez ◽

Kwang-Youn Kim ◽

Jason Ng ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Risk Factors ◽

Cardiovascular Disease ◽

Waist Circumference ◽

Sleep Duration ◽

Cvd Risk Factors ◽

Cvd Risk ◽

Sleep Study ◽

Chicago Area ◽

Wrist Actigraphy ◽

Apnea Detection

Introduction: Shortened sleep duration and poor quality sleep are each associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors (e.g., hypertension, obesity, diabetes) in prior cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. However, prior studies have often relied on self-reports of sleep duration, which commonly overestimate actual sleep time. Despite known associations of sleep disordered breathing (e.g., obstructive sleep apnea [OSA]) with CVD, prior studies have not excluded people with sleep disorders before testing these associations. Objective: We tested whether sleep duration and quality, measured objectively using wrist actigraphy, was associated with fasting glucose, blood pressure, and anthropometric characteristics in adults without a history of OSA and with apnea hypopnea index (AHI)<15 based on one night using in-home apnea detection equipment. Methods: The Chicago Area Sleep Study (CASS) recruited 531 participants (56% female) ages 35-64 years (mean= 47.5) via commercially available telephone listings. Participants underwent 1 night of screening using in-home apnea detection equipment (ApneaLink TM ) and 411 had AHI<15. Participants wore wrist actigraphs for 7 days (Actiwatch TM ) to determine sleep duration, sleep % (% of time during the sleep interval spent sleeping), and minutes of wake after sleep onset (WASO). The Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS) was used to determine daytime sleepiness. Height, weight and waist circumference were measured, hypertension and diabetes were determined according to JNC-VII and American Diabetes Association 2010 criteria, respectively. Results: On average, participants slept for 7 hours (SD=1.2), sleep percentage was 83.2% (SD=20.1), WASO was 41.2 min (SD=21), the ESS score was 6.8 (SD=4.1) and 44% of the sample slept for <7 hours/night. SBP and DBP were 114.5 (SD=13.6) and 70.9 mmHg (SD=9.8), respectively, fasting blood glucose was 92.5 mg/dL (SD=19.6), BMI was 26.2 kg/m 2 (SD=4.5) and waist circumference was 87.4 cm (SD=12.7). The prevalence of obesity (BMI>30), hypertension and diabetes was 21%, 14% and 6.1%, respectively. Sleep duration was the only measure to demonstrate statistically significant (p<0.05) associations with metabolic markers, namely inverse associations with SBP, DBP, BMI, waist circumference and the odds of obesity. Following adjustment for age, race, sex, education, physical activity, depressive symptoms, alcohol intake, smoking and sugared beverage intake, sleep duration (<7 hrs. vs. >7hrs) only remained significantly associated with BMI (β= -1.1 kg/m2, SE=0.42) and waist circumference (β= -3.8 cm, SE=1.2). Conclusions: Sleep duration is associated with CVD risk factors in adults with a low likelihood of OSA. The presence of other adverse health behaviors accounts for much of the observed association.

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Ethnicity and cardiovascular risk factors

ESC CardioMed ◽

10.1093/med/9780198784906.003.0698_update_001 ◽

2018 ◽

pp. 2887-2892

Author(s):

Nizal Sarrafzadegan ◽

Farzad Masoudkabir

Keyword(s):

Risk Factors ◽

Coronary Artery Disease ◽

Coronary Artery ◽

Waist Circumference ◽

Black People ◽

South Asians ◽

Cvd Risk Factors ◽

White People ◽

Cvd Risk ◽

Artery Disease

Significant variation is evident among different ethnicities regarding the prevalence, awareness, severity, treatment, and complications of major cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors. Relative to white Europeans, stroke mortality is almost doubled in South Asians and Afro-Caribbeans; however, when coronary artery disease mortality is considered, it is high in South Asians and low in Afro-Caribbeans. Hypertension is more common, severe, and is associated with higher rates of morbidity and mortality in black people than white people. Diabetes is more prevalent and less controlled in South Asians which leads to a nearly fourfold higher cardiovascular mortality in South Asians than other ethnic groups. Furthermore, South Asians suffer from a highly atherogenic lipid profile. In contrast, black people are generally known for their higher high-density lipoprotein and lower triglyceride levels than white people which seem to play a major role in protecting them from coronary artery disease. For a given waist circumference, Asian, black, and Caucasian people show different levels of intra-abdominal adiposity and CVD risk. Hence, the joint definition from five major organizations in 2009 of the metabolic syndrome set ethnic-specific values of waist circumference to define central obesity. Black Caribbean men have the highest rates of current smoking among all ethnic groups in the United Kingdom while nearly all South Asian and black African women are never-smokers. Varied genetic and lifestyle-related risk factors and their interactions seem to be responsible for the ethnic differences in CVD risk factors. There is a clear need for ethnic-specific guidelines for diagnosis and treatment of major CVD risk factors to maximize the outcomes of preventive strategies.

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Intake of Boiled Potato in Relation to Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors in a Large Norwegian Cohort: The HUNT Study

Nutrients ◽

10.3390/nu12010073 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 12 (1) ◽

pp. 73

Author(s):

Trine Moholdt ◽

Brooke L. Devlin ◽

Tom Ivar Lund Nilsen

Keyword(s):

Risk Factors ◽

Cardiovascular Disease ◽

Waist Circumference ◽

Disease Risk ◽

Cardiovascular Disease Risk ◽

Cvd Risk Factors ◽

Cvd Risk ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Hunt Study ◽

Potato Consumption

Overall potato consumption is positively associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors, such as measures of adiposity. However, few studies have explicitly stated the preparation method of potatoes, which may impact these associations. We examined cross-sectional associations between self-reported dietary intake of boiled potatoes and levels of body mass index, waist circumference, blood pressure, and blood lipids among 43,683 participants in the HUNT Study, Norway in 2006–2008. All estimated associations were adjusted for possible imbalance in age, sex, physical activity, smoking, intake of other foods and alcohol between categories of boiled potato consumption. Overall, there were no large differences in mean levels of CVD risk factors between categories of boiled potato consumption. Compared to the reference group of individuals who consumed boiled potatoes less than once/week, those who reported eating boiled potatoes every day had slightly higher prevalence of high waist circumference (odds ratio [OR] 1.16, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.05–1.29), high triglycerides levels (OR 1.20, 95% CI 1.07–1.34), and metabolic syndrome (OR 1.17, 95% CI 1.03–1.33). In summary, consumption of boiled potatoes showed weak and small associations with the CVD risk factors under study, but the cross-sectional design prevents us from drawing any firm conclusions.

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Pleiotropic effects between cardiovascular disease risk factors and measures of cognitive and physical function in long-lived adults

Scientific Reports ◽

10.1038/s41598-021-97298-0 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 11 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Julia J. Yudkovicz ◽

Ryan L. Minster ◽

Emma Barinas-Mitchell ◽

Kaare Christensen ◽

Mary Feitosa ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Risk Factors ◽

Cardiovascular Disease ◽

Cognitive Function ◽

Waist Circumference ◽

Gait Speed ◽

Disease Risk ◽

Cardiovascular Disease Risk ◽

Cvd Risk Factors ◽

Cvd Risk ◽

Chair Stand

AbstractCardiovacular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death among older adults and is often accompanied by functional decline. It is unclear what is driving this co-occurrence, but it may be behavioral, environmental and/or genetic. We used a family-based study to estimate the phenotypic and shared genetic correlation between CVD risk factors and physical and cognitive functional measures. Participants (n = 1,881) were from the Long Life Family Study, which enrolled families based on their exceptional longevity (sample mean age = 69.4 years, 44% female). Cardiovascular disease risk factors included carotid vessel measures [intima-media thickness and inter-adventitial diameter], obesity [body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference], and hypertension [systolic and diastolic blood pressures]. Function was measured in the physical [gait speed, grip strength, chair stand] and cognitive [digital symbol substitution test, retained and working memory, semantic fluency, and trail making tests] domains. We used SOLAR to estimate the genetic, environmental, and phenotypic correlation between each pair adjusting for age, age2, sex, field center, smoking, height, and weight. There were significant phenotypic correlations (range |0.05–0.22|) between CVD risk factors and physical and cognitive function (all P < 0.05). Most significant genetic correlations (range |0.21–0.62|) were between CVD risk factorsand cognitive function, although BMI and waist circumference had significant genetic correlation with gait speed and chair stand time (range |0.29–0.53|; all P < 0.05). These results suggest that CVD risk factors may share a common genetic-and thus, biologic-basis with both cognitive and physical function. This is particularly informative for research into the genetic determinants of chronic disease.

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Effects of a Yoga Program in Reducing Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors in Workers of Small Workplaces: A Pilot Test

Sustainability ◽

10.3390/su122310038 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 12 (23) ◽

pp. 10038

Author(s):

Won Ju Hwang ◽

Jin Ah Kim ◽

Ji Sun Ha

Keyword(s):

Risk Factors ◽

Cardiovascular Disease ◽

Waist Circumference ◽

Job Stress ◽

Disease Risk ◽

Control Group ◽

Cvd Risk Factors ◽

Cvd Risk ◽

Experimental Group

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of a yoga program provided to workers in small businesses to reduce cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors. A nonequivalent control group pre/post-test design was used. The experimental group (n = 31) was assigned a yoga program consisting of yoga postures designed for meditation, strengthening, stretching, and balancing, given twice weekly for 12 weeks. The control group (n = 38) was given no other intervention. The mean age was 48.1 years old in the experimental group and 47.7 years old in the control group. Three trained investigators collected the questionnaires and one month after completing the 12-week yoga program, the same questionnaires that were administered at baseline were again administered. Psychosocial variables (depressive symptoms and job stress), health promotion behaviors, and body measurements (weight and waist circumference) were measured for the program evaluation. The yoga program was effective in improving waist circumference (from 81.8 to 79.2, p < 0.001) and diastolic blood pressure (from 81.0 to 79.1, p = 0.004) as compared to the control group. Furthermore, the experimental group’s job stress score decreased from 1.38 to 1.02, but it was not statistically significant (p = 0.240). A yoga program could be a useful intervention for workers with CVD risk factors, but it was not effective in psychological factors such as job stress and depression. A long-term intervention approach is important to confirm the psychosocial effect. Therefore, future research is needed to investigate the long-term outcomes of such interventions.

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Is the body adiposity index (hip circumference/height1·5) more strongly related to skinfold thicknesses and risk factor levels than is BMI? The Bogalusa Heart Study

British Journal Of Nutrition ◽

10.1017/s0007114512000979 ◽

2012 ◽

Vol 109 (2) ◽

pp. 338-345 ◽

Cited By ~ 17

Author(s):

David S. Freedman ◽

Heidi M. Blanck ◽

William H. Dietz ◽

Pronabesh DasMahapatra ◽

Sathanur R. Srinivasan ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Risk Factors ◽

Waist Circumference ◽

The Body ◽

Cvd Risk Factors ◽

Hip Circumference ◽

Cvd Risk ◽

Body Adiposity Index ◽

Adiposity Index ◽

Body Adiposity ◽

Heart Study

Because of its strong association (r 0·85) with percentage of body fat determined by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, hip circumference divided by height1·5 (the body adiposity index) has recently been proposed as an index of body fatness among adults. We examined whether this proposed index was more strongly associated with skinfold thicknesses and levels of CVD risk factors (lipids, fasting insulin and glucose, and blood pressure) than was BMI among 2369 18- to 49-year-olds in the Bogalusa Heart Study. All analyses indicated that the body adiposity index was less strongly associated with skinfold thicknesses and CVD risk factors than was either waist circumference or BMI. Correlations with the skinfold sum, for example, were r 0·81 (BMI) v.r 0·75 (body adiposity index) among men, and r 0·87 (BMI) v.r 0·80 among women; P< 0·001 for both differences. An overall index of seven CVD risk factors was also more strongly associated with BMI (r 0·58) and waist circumference (r 0·61) than with the body adiposity index (r 0·49). The weaker associations with the body adiposity index were observed in analyses stratified by sex, race, age and year of examination. Multivariable analyses indicated that if either BMI or waist circumference were known, the body adiposity index provided no additional information on skinfold thicknesses or risk factor levels. These findings indicate that the body adiposity index is likely to be an inferior index of adiposity than is either BMI or waist circumference.

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Restrictive pattern on spirometry: association with cardiovascular risk and level of physical activity in asymptomatic adults

Jornal Brasileiro de Pneumologia ◽

10.1590/s1806-37562016000000030 ◽

2016 ◽

Vol 42 (1) ◽

pp. 22-28 ◽

Cited By ~ 11

Author(s):

Evandro Fornias Sperandio ◽

Rodolfo Leite Arantes ◽

Agatha Caveda Matheus ◽

Rodrigo Pereira da Silva ◽

Vinícius Tonon Lauria ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Physical Activity ◽

Risk Factors ◽

Arterial Hypertension ◽

Cardiorespiratory Fitness ◽

Physical Inactivity ◽

Center Of Pressure ◽

Cvd Risk Factors ◽

Cvd Risk ◽

Systemic Arterial Hypertension ◽

Restrictive Pattern

Objective : To determine whether a restrictive pattern on spirometry is associated with the level of physical activity in daily life (PADL), as well as with cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors, in asymptomatic adults. Methods : A total of 374 participants (mean age, 41 ± 14 years) underwent spirometry, which included the determination of FVC and FEV1. A restrictive pattern on spirometry was defined as an FEV1/FVC ratio > 0.7 and an FVC < 80% of the predicted value. After conducting demographic, anthropometric, and CVD risk assessments, we evaluated body composition, muscle function, and postural balance, as well as performing cardiopulmonary exercise testing and administering the six-minute walk test. The PADL was quantified with a triaxial accelerometer. Results : A restrictive pattern on spirometry was found in 10% of the subjects. After multivariate logistic regression, adjusted for confounders (PADL and cardiorespiratory fitness), the following variables retained significance (OR; 95% CI) as predictors of a restrictive pattern: systemic arterial hypertension (17.5; 1.65-184.8), smoking (11.6; 1.56-87.5), physical inactivity (8.1; 1.43-46.4), larger center-of-pressure area while standing on a force platform (1.34; 1.05-1.71); and dyslipidemia (1.89; 1.12-1.98). Conclusions : A restrictive pattern on spirometry appears to be common in asymptomatic adults. We found that CVD risk factors, especially systemic arterial hypertension, smoking, and physical inactivity, were directly associated with a restrictive pattern, even when the analysis was adjusted for PADL and cardiorespiratory fitness. Longitudinal studies are needed in order to improve understanding of the etiology of a restrictive pattern as well as to aid in the design of preventive strategies.

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Epigenetic Age Acceleration in Adolescence Associates With BMI, Inflammation, and Risk Score for Middle Age Cardiovascular Disease

The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism ◽

10.1210/jc.2018-02076 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 104 (7) ◽

pp. 3012-3024 ◽

Cited By ~ 9

Author(s):

Rae-Chi Huang ◽

Karen A Lillycrop ◽

Lawrence J Beilin ◽

Keith M Godfrey ◽

Denise Anderson ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Risk Factors ◽

Cardiovascular Disease ◽

Dna Methylation ◽

Middle Age ◽

Accelerated Aging ◽

Model Assessment ◽

Cvd Risk Factors ◽

Cvd Risk ◽

Epigenetic Age ◽

Epigenetic Age Acceleration

Abstract Context “Accelerated aging,” assessed by adult DNA methylation, predicts cardiovascular disease (CVD). Adolescent accelerated aging might predict CVD earlier. We investigated whether epigenetic age acceleration (assessed age, 17 years) was associated with adiposity/CVD risk measured (ages 17, 20, and 22 years) and projected CVD by middle age. Design DNA methylation measured in peripheral blood provided two estimates of epigenetic age acceleration: intrinsic (IEAA; preserved across cell types) and extrinsic (EEAA; dependent on cell admixture and methylation levels within each cell type). Adiposity was assessed by anthropometry, ultrasound, and dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (ages 17, 20, and 22 years). CVD risk factors [lipids, homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), blood pressure, inflammatory markers] were assessed at age 17 years. CVD development by age 47 years was calculated by Framingham algorithms. Results are presented as regression coefficients per 5-year epigenetic age acceleration (IEAA/EEAA) for adiposity, CVD risk factors, and CVD development. Results In 995 participants (49.6% female; age, 17.3 ± 0.6 years), EEAA (per 5 years) was associated with increased body mass index (BMI) of 2.4% (95% CI, 1.2% to 3.6%) and 2.4% (0.8% to 3.9%) at 17 and 22 years, respectively. EEAA was associated with increases of 23% (3% to 33%) in high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, 10% (4% to 17%) in interferon-γ–inducible protein of 10 kDa, and 4% (2% to 6%) in soluble TNF receptor 2, adjusted for BMI and HOMA-IR. EEAA (per 5 years) results in a 4% increase in hard endpoints of CVD by 47 years of age and a 3% increase, after adjustment for conventional risk factors. Conclusions Accelerated epigenetic age in adolescence was associated with inflammation, BMI measured 5 years later, and probability of middle age CVD. Irrespective of whether this is cause or effect, assessing epigenetic age might refine disease prediction.

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