1. Introduction

Author(s):  
Timothy Williamson

The Introduction focuses on the history of philosophy and intersections between philosophy, common sense, natural science, and mathematics, exploring what it means to do philosophy well in practice. How do we confirm that the methods philosophers use are appropriate for answering their questions? How is philosophy related to science? From the ancient Greeks onwards, philosophy included the study of the natural world. Galileo and Newton were scientists, Descartes a mathematician. When natural science and mathematics grew apart and developed their distinct methodologies, why was philosophy not rendered obsolete? What can philosophical methods still do better than scientific and mathematical methods?

Apeiron ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 0 (0) ◽  
Author(s):  
John D. Proios

Abstract Plato’s invention of the metaphor of carving the world by the joints (Phaedrus 265d–66c) gives him a privileged place in the history of natural kind theory in philosophy and science; he is often understood to present a paradigmatic but antiquated view of natural kinds as possessing eternal, immutable, necessary essences. Yet, I highlight that, as a point of distinction from contemporary views about natural kinds, Plato subscribes to an intelligent-design, teleological framework, in which the natural world is the product of craft and, as a result, is structured such that it is good for it to be that way. In Plato’s Philebus, the character Socrates introduces a method of inquiry whose articulation of natural kinds enables it to confer expert knowledge, such as literacy. My paper contributes to an understanding of Plato’s view of natural kinds by interpreting this method in light of Plato’s teleological conception of nature. I argue that a human inquirer who uses the method identifies kinds with relational essences within a system causally related to the production of some unique craft-object, such as writing. As a result, I recast Plato’s place in the history of philosophy, including Plato’s view of the relation between the kinds according to the natural and social sciences. Whereas some are inclined to separate natural from social kinds, Plato holds the unique view that all naturalness is a social feature of kinds reflecting the role of intelligent agency.


2001 ◽  
Vol 18 (2) ◽  
pp. 177-217
Author(s):  
David Sidorsky

The search for moral objectivity has been constant throughout the history of philosophy, although interpretations of the nature and scope of objectivity have varied. One aim of the pursuit of moral objectivity has been the demonstration of what may be termed its epistemological thesis, that is, the claim that the truth of assertions of the goodness or rightness of moral acts is as legitimate, reliable, or valid as the truth of assertions involving other forms of human knowledge, such as common sense, practical expertise, science, or mathematics. Another aim of the quest for moral objectivity may be termed its pragmatic formulation; this refers to the development of a method or procedure that will mediate among conflicting moral views in order to realize a convergence or justified agreement about warranted or true moral conclusions. In the ethical theories of Aristotle, David Hume, and John Dewey, theories that represent three of the four variants of ethical naturalism (defined below) that are surveyed in this essay, the epistemological thesis and the pragmatic formulation are integrated or combined. The distinction between these two elements is significant for the present essay, however, since I want to show that linguistic naturalism, the fourth variant I shall examine, has provided a demonstration of the epistemological thesis about moral knowledge, even if the pragmatic formulation has not been successfully realized.


Author(s):  
Dorothea E. Olkowski

Although grounded in the history of philosophy, Gilles Deleuze’s work does not begin with first principles but grasps the philosophical terrain in the middle. This method overthrows subject–object relations in order to initiate a philosophy of difference and chance that is not derived from static conceptions of being. It is a philosophy of the event, a state where sense arises independently of lived experience or scientific fact. The event is a sign without a signifier-signified relationship; a form of content that consists of a complex of forces that are not separable from their form of expression; an assemblage or body without organs, not the organized ego; time, intensity and duration instead of space; in short, a world in constant motion consisting of becomings and encounters that common sense concepts do not grasp. This radical philosophical project is rendered most clearly in Deleuze (and his collaborator Guattari’s concept of the ‘rhizome’). The rhizome is a multiplicity of connections without the unity that could pinpoint or identify a subject or an object. Any point of the rhizome can and must be connected to any other, though in no fixed order and without homogeneity. It can break or rupture at any point, yet old connections will start up again or new connections will be made; the rhizome’s connections thus have the character of a map, not a structural or generative formation. The rhizome, then, is not a model, but consists of lines of escape from from rooted, tree-like structures that open up the route for encounters and makes philosophy into cartography, that is, the mapping of concepts.


Prospects ◽  
1987 ◽  
Vol 12 ◽  
pp. 293-320
Author(s):  
Michael Lopez

Recent literary theory has questioned the way we look at a text as the product of an individual “author.” But for William James—who was, like Emerson, a thoroughly nineteenth-century mind-any utterance, even the most complicated philosophical system, was at bottom the expression of the personality of the author. The history of philosophy, James believed, was in essence the “clash of human temperaments,” and temperament seems to gravitate to either the “idealistic” or what James denned as the “materialistic” pole:Idealism will be chosen by a man of one emotional constitution, materialism by another.… [I]dealism gives to the nature of things such kinship with our personal selves. Our own thoughts are what we are most at home with, what we are least afraid of. To say then that the universe is essentially thought, is to say that I myself, potentially at least, am all. There is no radically alien corner, but an all-prevading intimacy. … That element in reality which every strong man of common-sense willingly feels there because it calls forth powers that he owns-the rough, harsh, sea-wave, north-wind element, the denier of persons, the democratizer-is banished because it jars too much on the desire for communication. Now, it is the very enjoyment of this element that throws many men upon the materialistic or agnostic hypothesis, as a polemic reaction against the contrary extreme. They sicken at a life wholly constituted of intimacy. There is an overpowering desire at moments to escape personality, to revel in the action of forces that have no respect for our ego, to let the tides flow, even though they flow over us. The strife of these two kinds of mental temper will, I think, always be seen in philosophy. Some men will keep insisting on the reason, the atonement, that lies in the heart of things, and that we can act with; others, on the capacity of brute fact that we must react against.


Philosophy ◽  
1958 ◽  
Vol 33 (126) ◽  
pp. 193-220
Author(s):  
Morris Lazerowitz

Occasionally there has appeared in the history of philosophy a thinker who has become aware of the chaotic condition of philosophy and of the intellectual anarchy that exists in all of its branches, and has attempted to remedy the situation. Descartes cast about for a guiding principle, a compass which would show him the way through the treacherous terrain of philosophy. As is well known he devised the method of systematic doubt, by means of which he hoped to discover an axiom on which he could securely erect a system of basic and reassuring beliefs. Leibniz had before his mind the notion of an ideal language which would by calculation solve problems with certainty. With this he thought we “should be able to reason in metaphysics and morals in much the same way as in geometry and analysis.” Descartes' attempt was a failure; and nothing came of Leibniz's ideal, even with the development of modern symbolic logic. Russell's claim that “logic is the essence of philosophy” frightened many philosophers and gave new hope to others; but his claim was as empty as the proverbial political promise. With G. E. Moore we have a further attempt to introduce sobriety and certainty into philosophy and to make fruitful research possible in it. He has made prominent a method for obtaining results in philosophy; and he has also formulated a philosophical platform, i.e., set out a list of Common-sense propositions which he says are known to be true by everyone, philosopher as well as non-philosopher, and are not, therefore, open to debate. The method, which he used extensively and with great skill, is the method of analysing concepts.


1919 ◽  
Vol 11 (4) ◽  
pp. 196-198
Author(s):  
F. A. Foraker

Leibnitz and Descartes made remarkable contributions to both mathematics and philosophy. Newton obtains a high rank in the history of the former subject, but only a minor place in the history of philosophy, while Kant, who possessed a well-founded knowledge of the science and mathematics of his time, receives one of the foremost positions in the history of philosophy. Upon the basis of these facts, if we neglect a few of the lesser lights, the statement is often made that there is a relationship between the study of mathematics and the study of philosophy, and that he who studies one of them will also find himself a devotee in the pursuit of the other.


2014 ◽  
Vol 40 (127) ◽  
pp. 173
Author(s):  
Lorenz B. Puntel

A palavra ‘metafísica’ na filosofia contemporânea tem um uso equívoco, mais exatamente: caótico. Em consequência disso, usos derivados como ‘não-metafísico’, ‘antimetafísco’ e ‘pós-metafísico’ não têm um sentido claro. O presente artigo não intenciona criar clareza sobre esta situação complicada. Com vista à sua finalidade, ele só focaliza o sentido que Habermas confere à palavra ‘metafísica’ e ao seu pensamento, ao qualificá-lo como ‘pós-metafísico’. O artigo mostra que Habermas essencialmente identifica metafísica com a filosofia moderna da subjetividade e da consciência, tanto na perspectiva transcendental como na perspectiva do idealismo alemão absoluto. Assim, a palavra ‘pós-metafísico’, aplicada a Habermas, significa o que está além da metafísica, como esta é entendida por ele; não pode significar o que, na longa história da filosofia, foi chamado de “metafísica”. O artigo primeiramente investiga e critica detalhadamente os dois caminhos seguidos por Habermas para chegar à sua postura pós-metafísica. O primeiro é um enfoque histórico-filosófico que faz certa violência aos autores interpretados e que conduz Habermas à conclusão que o pensamento metafísico é claramente obsoleto. Este enfoque, repetidamente por ele exposto, parte sempre de Kant e tem como seu ponto de chegada a postura filosófica de Habermas mesmo. O outro enfoque tem um caráter temático baseado em duas assunções fundamentais e de grande alcance. Segundo a primeira assunção, de caráter metodológico, a razão e a racionalidade são entendidas e aplicadas com um sentido puramente e estritamente procedural (razão/ racionalidade comunicativa). A segunda assunção, relativa ao conteúdo, estatui que o único objeto temático apropriado da filosofia é a dimensão da interacão entre sujeitos humanos ou seja da práctica social ou comunicativa própria do mundo-da-vida. A mais importante secção do artigo, a secção 3, apresenta uma crítica mais pormenorizada do pensamento pós-metafísico de Habermas. Nela se investigam três temas centrais da filosofia habermasiana e se evidenciam três falhas fundamentais da sua postura pós-metafísica. O artigo mostra que se trata de posicionamentos ou temas filosóficos, para os quais Habermas, devido à sua posição pós-metafísica, não está capacitado a elaborar uma solução esclarecedora. O primeiro posicionamento ou tema é a não-elaboração de um conceito de Mundo (com “M” maiúsculo) como a dimensão que unifica e possibilita a relação entre a dimensão da verdade e a dimensão do mundo-como-a-totalidade-dosobjetos. O segundo posicionamento ou tema é o naturalismo fraco” defendido por Habermas em base de uma distinção não-esclarecida entre o “mundo natural” e o “mundo-da-vida”. O terceiro tema ou posicionamento, ao qual Habermas se tem dedicado especialmente nos últimos anos, é a conjunção ou conexão ambígua e obscura entre a rejeição incondicional da metafísica e a (re)avaliação da religião. Estes três temas ou posicionamentos constituem três dicotomias que permanecem sem esclarecimento no pensamento do filósofo alemão. Uma tentativa de esclarecê-las consistiria em elaborar um conceito irrestrito de razão ou racionalidade e de teoria e de tematizar um conceito de Mundo como a dimensão que abarca os dois polos de cada uma das dicotomias. A execução desta tarefa teria como resultado uma teoria, à qual, em termos tradicionais, se deveria atribuir um estatuto metafísico.Abstract: The term ‘metaphysics’ is used in contemporary philosophy equivocally or, more precisely, chaotically. As a consequence, uses of such derivative terms as Anonmetaphysical”, “antimetaphysical” and “postmetaphysical” are also chaotic. This paper makes no attempt to bring order to this chaos. Its focus is only on Habermas’s understanding of metaphysics and of his own thinking as postmetaphysical, in his sense. It shows that he often comes close to identifying metaphysics with the modern philosophy of subjectivity or consciousness. This makes clear that the term “postmetaphysical,” as Habermas uses it, means only, “beyond what Habermas calls ‘metaphysics’”— hence, most importantly, “beyond Kantian and post-Kantian philosophies of subjectivity.” It cannot mean, “beyond everything that, in the history of philosophy, has been called ‘metaphysics.’” The paper first examines and criticizes in detail Habermas’s two ways of arriving at and characterizing and explaining his postmetaphysical position. The historico-philosophical path takes the form of severely truncated considerations of the history of philosophy that lead him to conclude that metaphysical thinking is utterly obsolete; these considerations almost always begin with Kant and end with Habermas himself. The thematic path consists of two fundamental and far-reaching assumptions. According to his methodological assumption, reason and/ or rationality has a purely procedural character. His contentual assumption is that the dimension of social interaction and communicative practices, the human lifeworld, is the only real subject matter for philosophy. Section 3, the most important section of the paper, presents more narrowly focused critiques of Habermas’s postmetaphysical thinking. It addresses three central problems in his philosophy, and reveals highly significant shortcomings of his postmetaphysical philosophical position. It shows extensively that his treatments of these problems put him on paths that he cannot follow to their ends because of the narrow limits of his postmetaphysical approach. The first problem is the lack of a concept of World (with a capital “W”) as the unity of the dimension of truth and the dimension of world-as-the-totality-of-objects43.3.2.3 The missing concept of World (capital-W)) as the unity of truth dimension and world-as-the-totalityof-objects; the second problem is his weak naturalism and his unclarified distinction between the natural world and the lifeworld; the third problem is his ambiguous and incoherent conjunction of the rejection of metaphysics and the (re)evaluation of religion. These three problems involve dichotomies Habermas leaves unexplained. Explaining them would require him to elaborate non-restricted concepts of reason/rationality and theory, and to thematize the World, i.e., the dimension encompassing both poles of the dichotomies. Such elaboration and thematization would yield a theory that would be, in traditional terms, metaphysical.


1989 ◽  
Vol 25 (3) ◽  
pp. 347-362 ◽  
Author(s):  
C. S. Evans

If some philosophers had not existed, the history of philosophy would have to invent them. After all, what would the introduction to philosophy teacher do without good old Berkeley, the notorious denier of common sense, or Hume, the infamous sceptic. In some cases, in fact, philosophers have been invented by the history of philosophy. I don't mean to suggest that historians of philosophy have actually altered the past by bringing into being real flesh and blood philosophers. Rather, I mean to say that the textbook caricatures of famous philosophers are often a creation of the tradition, encrusted layers of hoary myths and legends which often hold the actual philosopher prisoner, the myths of Berkeley and Hume which I just alluded to being excellent examples.


1972 ◽  
Vol 6 ◽  
pp. 165-181
Author(s):  
Oliver Johnson

Of all the kinds of arguments that philosophers use to support their conclusions, the one type that I find personally to stick longest and most vividly in my mind is the verbal pictures they occasionally draw. Whether this is a result of the fact that I myself think best in pictorial terms or, as I would rather like to believe, is a tribute to the verbal artistry of the writers themselves, it remains true that, for me, the history of philosophy is punctuated with pictures, some pleasing and others perplexing. I need hardly mention Plato; with the Allegory of the Cave, the Myth of Er, the Charioteer of the Soul, and countless others he is beyond question the supreme master of the art. But other examples easily come to mind. I see Descartes seated in solitude before the fire in his dressing gown, suddenly to be surprised by a malignant demon, who appears at his shoulder to whisper insinuatingly into his ear that 2 plus 2 does not equal 4 at all. Or William James on a camping trip with friends trying to decide whether one of their number who keeps circling a tree on which a squirrel clings - and in turn circles the tree at equal speed, keeping the tree between him and his tormenter and never permitting the latter to get into a position behind his back - does or does not circle the squirrel, as he undoubtedly does circle the tree to which the squirrel clings. Or, I see G. E. Moore - and it is this picture that gives rise to the present paper - carefully contemplating two complete, independent, and quite different worlds, trying to decide which of the two is intrinsically better than the other.


CONVERTER ◽  
2021 ◽  
pp. 939-954
Author(s):  
Masharipova Gularam Kamilovna

In the historical and philosophical heritage of the scientists of the Khorezm Academy of Mamun, issues of social relations, science, education, lifestyle and social life are scientifically analyzed. It consists in identifying the influence of the natural science heritage of the scientists of the Khorezm Academy of Mamun on the development of socio-philosophical thinking, substantiating its significance in the history of philosophy, its place in the development of modern philosophy and its role in the development of philosophy. creation of new knowledge.


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